<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" version="2.0" xmlns:itunes="http://www.itunes.com/dtds/podcast-1.0.dtd" xmlns:googleplay="http://www.google.com/schemas/play-podcasts/1.0"><channel><title><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></title><description><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com</link><image><url>https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Hfk!,w_256,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Ffrancoisvadrot.substack.com%2Fimg%2Fsubstack.png</url><title>François Vadrot</title><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com</link></image><generator>Substack</generator><lastBuildDate>Mon, 24 Aug 2026 17:21:51 GMT</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/feed" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><copyright><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></copyright><language><![CDATA[fr]]></language><webMaster><![CDATA[francoisvadrot@substack.com]]></webMaster><itunes:owner><itunes:email><![CDATA[francoisvadrot@substack.com]]></itunes:email><itunes:name><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></itunes:name></itunes:owner><itunes:author><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></itunes:author><googleplay:owner><![CDATA[francoisvadrot@substack.com]]></googleplay:owner><googleplay:email><![CDATA[francoisvadrot@substack.com]]></googleplay:email><googleplay:author><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></googleplay:author><itunes:block><![CDATA[Yes]]></itunes:block><item><title><![CDATA[[Education 4/4] The human educates the machine that educates the human. A closed loop always belongs to someone. ]]></title><description><![CDATA[A worker educates the machine for three dollars an hour. A schoolgirl educates it for free. The machine signs the research that will train the teachers. The loop is closed, and Paris and Beijing are fighting over one thing only: the identity of its owner. Final instalment.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-44-the-human-educates-the</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-44-the-human-educates-the</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 26 Jul 2026 05:01:40 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUxH!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/bildung-44-der-mensch-erzieht-die">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-44-the-human-educates-the">English</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/educacion-44-el-humano-educa-a-la">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/copy-education-44-lhumain-eduque">Fran&#231;ais</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/istruzione-44-lumano-educa-la-macchina">Italiano</a></p><p><em>The loop is closed, and a closed loop always belongs to someone. Final instalment of the series on what the machine is doing to the school, and on who will decide what is done with the human.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUxH!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUxH!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUxH!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUxH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUxH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUxH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1075825,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Illustration: a circular conveyor loop links four stations: an adult hand folding laundry near a sensor, a red circuit-brain of AI, a screen where that brain teaches a grey child, the child's pen emitting a thread of red dots that rejoin the brain. At the exact centre of the loop, a black keyhole, alone. The human educates the machine that educates the human ; the loop belongs to someone.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/208314503?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Illustration: a circular conveyor loop links four stations: an adult hand folding laundry near a sensor, a red circuit-brain of AI, a screen where that brain teaches a grey child, the child's pen emitting a thread of red dots that rejoin the brain. At the exact centre of the loop, a black keyhole, alone. The human educates the machine that educates the human ; the loop belongs to someone." title="Illustration: a circular conveyor loop links four stations: an adult hand folding laundry near a sensor, a red circuit-brain of AI, a screen where that brain teaches a grey child, the child's pen emitting a thread of red dots that rejoin the brain. At the exact centre of the loop, a black keyhole, alone. The human educates the machine that educates the human ; the loop belongs to someone." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUxH!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUxH!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUxH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUxH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5661ff68-0e74-4ecc-b506-a029184e4525_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The loop is closed. The keyhole at the centre is the question of the series: to whom does it belong?</figcaption></figure></div><h2>Two women educate the machine. Only one is paid.</h2><p>Our dossier on <a href="EN_SLUG_DEUX_ROUTES">the workerless factory</a> opened with Gao Bo, a Chinese worker paid three dollars an hour (around 2.60 euros) to fold laundry in front of sensors. Her gestures, turned into data, serve to train the robots that will take her place. This series has met another Gao. The shared surname is coincidence, the symmetry is not. Gao Yilin, fifteen, a ninth-grader in Hangzhou, educates the machine too. Every stroke of her camera pen, every pressure of her hand feeds the system that will personalise the teaching of those who come after her. She is not paid. She pays. Or rather her parents pay, since the school is private.</p><p>The two women occupy the two ends of a single industry, the production of human data for the training of machines. One practises it as a job, at the rate of deskilled labour. The other as a condition of her own schooling, at a rate of zero. Between them stretches a chain that the first three instalments of this series documented link by link, without ever looking at it whole. This final instalment looks at it whole.</p><h2>From the laundry room to the laboratory, the chain closes link by link</h2><p>Gao Bo educates the machine. The machine, turned tutor, educates the child. In Shanghai, fourteen-year-old Wu Yutong organises his days with the family&#8217;s smart speaker, which knows his waking hours, his routines and his revision habits. &#8220;For me, it&#8217;s already indispensable,&#8221; he says, admitting he listens to it more willingly than to his parents&#8217; nagging. The child, in return, educates the machine: Gao Yilin&#8217;s pen produces with every line the data that refines the tutor. Future teachers themselves pass through it. At East China Normal University, the national matrix of teacher training, 7,000 students train for debate against an AI application, since deployed in a hundred other schools, whose designer, Professor Li Zheng, vaunts in domestic AI &#8220;a high-performance and efficient educational assistant&#8221;. And at the summit, the journal of that same university now publishes papers with the AI as &#8220;first author&#8221;. The machine produces the pedagogical knowledge that will train the teachers who will train the pupils who will train it.</p><p>One caveat before going on, since it conditions the use of everything above. This loop is a structure, not plumbing. The data from the Hangzhou pen does not, to our knowledge, feed the model that signs in Shanghai. Each link belongs to different operators, and no document describes the complete circuit. But every link exists, documented in this series or in our industrial dossier, and the overall shape is that of a loop: the human educates the machine that educates the human who produces the data that improves the machine. Now closed loops have a property that this whole dossier has been positing from day one, across BYD-ization, the factory and the school. They belong to someone.</p><h2>&#8220;Educated by AI&#8221; means: educated by the owner of the model</h2><p>A human tutor belongs to himself. A machine tutor, though, belongs to whoever controls three things: the data that trained it, the model&#8217;s weights, and the conditions of access (the price, the rules, what it may say and what it will keep quiet). &#8220;Educated by AI&#8221; is therefore an ellipsis. The full sentence reads: educated by the owner of the model, through the AI. Professor Chu Hongqi, of Beijing Normal University, writes it in the very journal that publishes the AI as first author: whoever controls the data and the algorithms holds the power to control the production of knowledge. The loop extends his sentence by one mechanical step: whoever controls the production of the knowledge that educates controls, downstream, the production of the human.</p><p>This extension retrospectively deciphers a discourse this series has crossed in every episode without naming it, that of sovereignty.</p><h2>Paris and Beijing understood before the pedagogues: the fight is over the identity of the teaching machine</h2><p>States do more than they say. In June 2025 the French Ministry of Education published a <a href="https://www.education.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/2025-06/l-ia-en-ducation---cadre-d-usage-440685.pdf">&#8220;framework for use&#8221; of AI at school</a> describing the available tools as &#8220;mostly non-sovereign, non-free, opaque&#8221; (in their workings as in their training data, the text specifies), and it makes compulsory <a href="https://pix.fr/actualites/intelligence-artificielle-parcours-apprenants-enseignement-scolaire-2026/">two AI training courses on Pix</a>, the public platform for assessing digital skills, for pupils of quatri&#232;me and seconde (roughly thirteen and fifteen years old) and of the first year of the CAP vocational track, effective for all from the start of the 2026 school year, that is a million and a half pupils a year. China, as the second instalment showed, raises school AI to the rank of national strategy, and its reference academic journal is building an &#8220;autonomous knowledge system&#8221;. Neither Paris nor Beijing reopens the question this series has been asking since the amputation of the summit, that of what school is for. Both, though, answer a prior question that neither of them formulates: by whom will the human be educated. Educational sovereignty, in both capitals, bears neither on curricula nor on purposes. It bears on the identity of the owner of the teaching machine. States understood before the pedagogues where the game is being played.</p><p>Within this frame, the humanists&#8217; objections change status. When John Hopcroft, Turing Award laureate, objects in <a href="https://bm.cugb.edu.cn/jsfzzx/upload/resources/file/2026/01/03/298194.pdf">his dialogue with Zhu Yongxin</a> that the machine has neither curiosity nor concern for the pupil&#8217;s success, or when Chinese doctrine reserves for the teacher the role of <a href="https://xbjk.ecnu.edu.cn/CN/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2023.07.001">master-of-persons (the one who forms beings) while ceding to the machine that of master-of-knowledge</a>, these positions no longer belong to pedagogical debate. They are defensive lines drawn along the last frontier, the delimitation of what, in the education of a human, will not be the property of a model&#8217;s owner.</p><h2>The hour cut away is now the hour of thought, and Lafargue&#8217;s question becomes total</h2><p><a href="https://glocalworkshop.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/07/Right-to-be-lazy-A5.pdf"><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">Paul Lafargue asked the factory of 1880 </span></a>what would become of the hour the machine cuts away, and who would capture it. Our industrial dossier followed that hour through the worker and the white-collar clerk. The first instalment of this series watched it reach the laboratory, the work of thought, the last storey of the promise that the machine would take the toil and man would keep the thinking. When that storey automates, the bifurcation stops being sectoral. It becomes total, and it presents itself at school, because school is the institution charged with preparing humans for a world in which no one can any longer say what place awaits them.</p><p>The two branches are those of the whole dossier. If the machine&#8217;s gain is captured, work grows scarce from the top as from the bottom, and school mechanically becomes again what the second instalment showed it had never ceased to be, a sorting machine. A hardened sorting machine, since the places to distribute grow scarce, and instrumented right down to the pen stroke, whatever the pedagogical dressing. If the gain is shared, school must educate for a life that work no longer structures, and the vocabulary keeps the memory of it. The Greek <em>schol&#232;</em>, from which &#8220;school&#8221; descends, meant leisure, the time the free man devoted to what served nothing but himself. The industrial school turned the word into an antechamber of employment, and the bifurcation offers it the chance to recover its meaning.</p><p>What would then remain to be formed? Precisely what the loop does not produce. Judgement, the capacity to evaluate what one has not made oneself, which is acquired only by making, which is why the third instalment showed that school production, worthless as product, remained indispensable as means. The definition of problems, since the machine solves what it is given, but knowing what to give it, and why, cannot be delegated. A practical epistemology for a world where the plausible fake costs nothing to make. Responsibility, of which the &#8220;first author&#8221; experiment establishes by absurdity that it cannot be delegated: a signature with no one to answer for it forced the institution to invent the fabrication note. And cooperation between humans, a free by-product of the classroom that will now have to be produced by design.</p><h2>What becomes of the hour and what becomes of the child are decided in the same place</h2><p>The machine will decide none of what runs through it. Does the hour it cuts away become leisure or layoff? Does the school it equips form judges or the sorted? Whose is the loop of which it is the centre? These decisions are taken in the same place for the factory and for the school, outside the workshop, outside the classroom, where gains are distributed and the rules of property are written.</p><p>Our industrial dossier closed on the productivity Gao Bo helps make, which will belong to someone. This series closes on its exact mirror: will the human that school makes, measured stroke by stroke, coached by voice agent, taught by masters trained against the machine, from a knowledge the machine is beginning to sign, belong to himself? He has a model owner on one side, a pupil on the other, and between the two everything a society decides or declines to decide. The Shanghai announcement promised that the human would stay on stage to watch over &#8220;the depth of thought and the brilliance of humanity&#8221;. Watching over is not owning. Whose?</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qvaJ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc8c069-ad27-4e5e-9cb3-35e07001409b_1600x427.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qvaJ!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc8c069-ad27-4e5e-9cb3-35e07001409b_1600x427.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qvaJ!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc8c069-ad27-4e5e-9cb3-35e07001409b_1600x427.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qvaJ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc8c069-ad27-4e5e-9cb3-35e07001409b_1600x427.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qvaJ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc8c069-ad27-4e5e-9cb3-35e07001409b_1600x427.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qvaJ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc8c069-ad27-4e5e-9cb3-35e07001409b_1600x427.png" width="1456" height="389" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7dc8c069-ad27-4e5e-9cb3-35e07001409b_1600x427.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:389,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:52048,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Diagram: four stages on a line, Summit, Yardstick, Proof, Loop. The fourth, Loop, is marked in red: who owns the educated human?&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/208314503?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc8c069-ad27-4e5e-9cb3-35e07001409b_1600x427.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Diagram: four stages on a line, Summit, Yardstick, Proof, Loop. The fourth, Loop, is marked in red: who owns the educated human?" title="Diagram: four stages on a line, Summit, Yardstick, Proof, Loop. The fourth, Loop, is marked in red: who owns the educated human?" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qvaJ!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc8c069-ad27-4e5e-9cb3-35e07001409b_1600x427.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qvaJ!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc8c069-ad27-4e5e-9cb3-35e07001409b_1600x427.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qvaJ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc8c069-ad27-4e5e-9cb3-35e07001409b_1600x427.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qvaJ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc8c069-ad27-4e5e-9cb3-35e07001409b_1600x427.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The route of the series: four stations, one question. The last one lights up.</figcaption></figure></div><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>All our publications are free and Copyleft. They may be republished, in whole or in part, under following conditions:</strong><br><strong>&#8594; keeping the title and content</strong><br><strong>(text, images, editor&#8217;s or translator&#8217;s notes, boxes)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; crediting the author(s) and/or translator(s)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; inserting a clickable link to the source.</strong><br><strong>Any monetization or commercial use of these publications is prohibited and will be subject to legal action.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Éducation 4/4] L’humain éduque la machine qui éduque l’humain. Une boucle fermée appartient toujours à quelqu’un. ]]></title><description><![CDATA[Une ouvri&#232;re &#233;duque la machine pour trois dollars de l'heure. Une coll&#233;gienne l'&#233;duque gratuitement. La machine signe la recherche qui formera les ma&#238;tres. La boucle est ferm&#233;e, et Paris comme P&#233;kin ne se disputent qu'une chose : l'identit&#233; de son propri&#233;taire. Dernier volet.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/copy-education-44-lhumain-eduque</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/copy-education-44-lhumain-eduque</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 26 Jul 2026 05:01:39 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4hif!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/bildung-44-der-mensch-erzieht-die">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-44-the-human-educates-the">English</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/educacion-44-el-humano-educa-a-la">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/copy-education-44-lhumain-eduque">Fran&#231;ais</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/istruzione-44-lumano-educa-la-macchina">Italiano</a></p><p><em>La boucle est ferm&#233;e, et une boucle ferm&#233;e appartient toujours &#224; quelqu&#8217;un. Dernier volet de la s&#233;rie sur ce que la machine fait &#224; l&#8217;&#233;cole, et sur qui d&#233;cidera de ce qu&#8217;on fait de l&#8217;humain.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4hif!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4hif!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4hif!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4hif!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4hif!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4hif!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/cbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1075825,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Illustration : une boucle circulaire de convoyeur relie quatre stations &#8212; une main adulte pliant du linge pr&#232;s d'un capteur, un cerveau &#224; circuits d'IA g&#233;om&#233;trique rouge, un &#233;cran o&#249; ce c&#339;ur enseigne &#224; un enfant gris, le stylo de l'enfant &#233;mettant un filet de points rouges qui rejoignent le cerveau. Au centre exact de la boucle, une serrure noire, seule. L'humain &#233;duque la machine qui &#233;duque l'humain ; la boucle appartient &#224; quelqu'un.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207942694?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Illustration : une boucle circulaire de convoyeur relie quatre stations &#8212; une main adulte pliant du linge pr&#232;s d'un capteur, un cerveau &#224; circuits d'IA g&#233;om&#233;trique rouge, un &#233;cran o&#249; ce c&#339;ur enseigne &#224; un enfant gris, le stylo de l'enfant &#233;mettant un filet de points rouges qui rejoignent le cerveau. Au centre exact de la boucle, une serrure noire, seule. L'humain &#233;duque la machine qui &#233;duque l'humain ; la boucle appartient &#224; quelqu'un." title="Illustration : une boucle circulaire de convoyeur relie quatre stations &#8212; une main adulte pliant du linge pr&#232;s d'un capteur, un cerveau &#224; circuits d'IA g&#233;om&#233;trique rouge, un &#233;cran o&#249; ce c&#339;ur enseigne &#224; un enfant gris, le stylo de l'enfant &#233;mettant un filet de points rouges qui rejoignent le cerveau. Au centre exact de la boucle, une serrure noire, seule. L'humain &#233;duque la machine qui &#233;duque l'humain ; la boucle appartient &#224; quelqu'un." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4hif!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4hif!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4hif!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4hif!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbcb4762-6a9c-427e-990d-61b1c1809b60_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">La boucle est ferm&#233;e. La serrure au centre est la question de la s&#233;rie : &#224; qui appartient-elle ?</figcaption></figure></div><h2>Deux femmes &#233;duquent la machine. Une seule est pay&#233;e.</h2><p>Notre dossier sur <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/deux-routes-menent-a-lusine-sans">l&#8217;usine sans ouvriers</a> s&#8217;ouvrait sur Gao Bo, ouvri&#232;re chinoise pay&#233;e trois dollars de l&#8217;heure (environ 2,60 euros) pour plier du linge devant des capteurs. Ses gestes, convertis en donn&#233;es, servent &#224; entra&#238;ner les robots qui occuperont sa place. Cette s&#233;rie a rencontr&#233; une autre Gao. L&#8217;homonymie est un hasard, la sym&#233;trie n&#8217;en est pas un. Gao Yilin, quinze ans, &#233;l&#232;ve de troisi&#232;me &#224; Hangzhou, &#233;duque elle aussi la machine : chaque trait de son stylo &#224; cam&#233;ra, chaque pression de sa main alimentent le syst&#232;me qui personnalisera l&#8217;enseignement des suivants. Elle n&#8217;est pas pay&#233;e. Elle paie, ou plut&#244;t ses parents paient, puisque l&#8217;&#233;cole est priv&#233;e.</p><p>Les deux femmes occupent les deux bouts d&#8217;une m&#234;me industrie, la production de donn&#233;es humaines pour l&#8217;apprentissage des machines. L&#8217;une la pratique comme m&#233;tier, au tarif du travail d&#233;qualifi&#233;. L&#8217;autre comme condition de sa propre scolarit&#233;, au tarif de z&#233;ro. Entre les deux s&#8217;&#233;tend une cha&#238;ne que les trois premiers volets de cette s&#233;rie ont document&#233;e maillon par maillon, sans jamais la regarder d&#8217;un bloc. Ce dernier volet la regarde.</p><h2>De la buanderie au laboratoire, la cha&#238;ne se referme maillon par maillon</h2><p>Gao Bo &#233;duque la machine. La machine, devenue tuteur, &#233;duque l&#8217;enfant. &#192; Shanghai, Wu Yutong, quatorze ans, organise ses journ&#233;es avec l&#8217;enceinte connect&#233;e familiale, qui conna&#238;t ses heures de r&#233;veil, ses routines et ses habitudes de r&#233;vision. &#171; Pour moi, elle est d&#233;j&#224; indispensable &#187;, dit-il, en admettant qu&#8217;il l&#8217;&#233;coute plus volontiers que les sermons de ses parents. L&#8217;enfant, en retour, &#233;duque la machine : le stylo de Gao Yilin produit &#224; chaque ligne la donn&#233;e qui affine le tuteur. Les futurs ma&#238;tres eux-m&#234;mes passent par elle. &#192; l&#8217;Universit&#233; normale de Chine orientale, matrice nationale de la formation des enseignants, 7 000 &#233;tudiants s&#8217;entra&#238;nent au d&#233;bat contre une application d&#8217;IA, d&#233;ploy&#233;e depuis dans une centaine d&#8217;autres &#233;coles, dont le concepteur, le professeur Li Zheng, vante &#171; un assistant p&#233;dagogique performant et efficace &#187;. Et au sommet, la revue de cette m&#234;me universit&#233; publie d&#233;sormais des articles dont l&#8217;IA est le &#171; premier auteur &#187;. La machine produit le savoir p&#233;dagogique qui formera les ma&#238;tres qui formeront les &#233;l&#232;ves qui l&#8217;entra&#238;neront.</p><p>Une pr&#233;caution s&#8217;impose ici, qui conditionne l&#8217;usage de ce qui pr&#233;c&#232;de. Cette boucle est une structure, non une tuyauterie. Les donn&#233;es du stylo de Hangzhou n&#8217;alimentent pas, &#224; notre connaissance, le mod&#232;le qui signe &#224; Shanghai. Chaque maillon appartient &#224; des op&#233;rateurs distincts, et aucun document ne d&#233;crit le circuit complet. Mais chaque maillon existe, document&#233; dans cette s&#233;rie ou dans notre dossier industriel, et la forme d&#8217;ensemble est celle d&#8217;une boucle : l&#8217;humain &#233;duque la machine qui &#233;duque l&#8217;humain qui produit la donn&#233;e qui am&#233;liore la machine. Or les boucles ferm&#233;es ont une propri&#233;t&#233; que le cadre de tout ce dossier, la BYD-isation, l&#8217;usine, l&#8217;&#233;cole, pose depuis le premier jour. Elles appartiennent &#224; quelqu&#8217;un.</p><h2>&#171; &#201;duqu&#233; par l&#8217;IA &#187; veut dire : &#233;duqu&#233; par le propri&#233;taire du mod&#232;le</h2><p>Un tuteur humain appartient &#224; lui-m&#234;me. Un tuteur machinique, par contre, appartient &#224; qui contr&#244;le trois choses : les donn&#233;es qui l&#8217;ont form&#233;, les poids du mod&#232;le et les conditions d&#8217;acc&#232;s (le prix, les r&#232;gles, ce qu&#8217;il peut dire et ce qu&#8217;il taira). &#171; &#201;duqu&#233; par l&#8217;IA &#187; est donc une ellipse. La phrase compl&#232;te est : &#233;duqu&#233; par le propri&#233;taire du mod&#232;le, &#224; travers l&#8217;IA. Le professeur Chu Hongqi, de l&#8217;Universit&#233; normale de P&#233;kin, l&#8217;&#233;crit dans la revue m&#234;me qui publie l&#8217;IA en premier auteur : qui contr&#244;le les donn&#233;es et les algorithmes d&#233;tient le pouvoir de contr&#244;ler la production du savoir. La boucle prolonge cette phrase d&#8217;un cran m&#233;canique : qui contr&#244;le la production du savoir qui &#233;duque contr&#244;le, en aval, la production de l&#8217;humain.</p><p>Ce prolongement d&#233;chiffre r&#233;trospectivement un discours que cette s&#233;rie a crois&#233; dans chaque &#233;pisode sans le nommer, celui de la souverainet&#233;.</p><h2>Paris et P&#233;kin ont compris avant les p&#233;dagogues : le combat porte sur l&#8217;identit&#233; de la machine-&#233;ducatrice</h2><p>Les &#201;tats font plus qu&#8217;ils n&#8217;en disent. Le minist&#232;re fran&#231;ais de l&#8217;&#201;ducation a publi&#233; en juin 2025 un <a href="https://www.education.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/2025-06/l-ia-en-ducation---cadre-d-usage-440685.pdf">&#171; cadre d&#8217;usage &#187; de l&#8217;IA &#224; l&#8217;&#233;cole</a> qui d&#233;crit les outils disponibles comme &#171; majoritairement non souverains, non libres, opaques &#187; (dans leur fonctionnement comme dans leurs donn&#233;es d&#8217;entra&#238;nement, pr&#233;cise le texte), et il impose <a href="https://pix.fr/actualites/intelligence-artificielle-parcours-apprenants-enseignement-scolaire-2026/">deux parcours de formation &#224; l&#8217;IA sur Pix</a>, la plateforme publique d&#8217;&#233;valuation des comp&#233;tences num&#233;riques, obligatoires pour les &#233;l&#232;ves de quatri&#232;me, de seconde et de premi&#232;re ann&#233;e de CAP, effectifs pour tous &#224; la rentr&#233;e 2026, soit un million et demi d&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ves par an. La Chine, on l&#8217;a vu au deuxi&#232;me volet, &#233;l&#232;ve l&#8217;IA scolaire au rang de strat&#233;gie nationale et sa revue acad&#233;mique de r&#233;f&#233;rence b&#226;tit un &#171; syst&#232;me de connaissances autonome &#187;. Ni Paris ni P&#233;kin ne rouvrent la question que cette s&#233;rie pose depuis l&#8217;amputation du sommet, celle de savoir &#224; quoi doit servir l&#8217;&#233;cole. Par contre, l&#8217;un et l&#8217;autre r&#233;pondent &#224; une question ant&#233;rieure qu&#8217;aucun des deux ne formule : par qui l&#8217;humain sera-t-il &#233;duqu&#233;. La souverainet&#233; &#233;ducative, dans les deux capitales, ne porte ni sur les programmes ni sur les finalit&#233;s. Elle porte sur l&#8217;identit&#233; du propri&#233;taire de la machine-&#233;ducatrice. Les &#201;tats ont compris avant les p&#233;dagogues o&#249; se joue la partie.</p><p>Dans ce cadre, les objections des humanistes changent de statut. Quand John Hopcroft, laur&#233;at du prix Turing, objecte dans <a href="https://bm.cugb.edu.cn/jsfzzx/upload/resources/file/2026/01/03/298194.pdf">son dialogue avec Zhu Yongxin</a> que la machine n&#8217;a ni curiosit&#233; ni souci de la r&#233;ussite de l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve, ou quand la doctrine chinoise r&#233;serve &#224; l&#8217;enseignant le r&#244;le de <a href="https://xbjk.ecnu.edu.cn/CN/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2023.07.001">ma&#238;tre-de-personnes (celui qui forme des &#234;tres) en c&#233;dant &#224; la machine celui de ma&#238;tre-de-savoir</a>, ces positions ne rel&#232;vent plus du d&#233;bat p&#233;dagogique. Ce sont des lignes d&#233;fensives trac&#233;es sur la derni&#232;re fronti&#232;re, celle qui d&#233;limite ce qui, dans l&#8217;&#233;ducation d&#8217;un humain, ne sera pas la propri&#233;t&#233; du d&#233;tenteur d&#8217;un mod&#232;le.</p><h2>L&#8217;heure retranch&#233;e est d&#233;sormais celle de la pens&#233;e, et la question de Lafargue devient totale</h2><p><a href="https://glocalworkshop.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/07/Droit-paresse-A5.pdf"><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">Paul Lafargue demandait &#224; l&#8217;usine de 1880</span></a> ce que deviendrait l&#8217;heure que la machine retranche, et qui la capterait. Notre dossier industriel suivait cette heure chez l&#8217;ouvri&#232;re et le col blanc. Le premier volet de cette s&#233;rie l&#8217;a vue atteindre le laboratoire, le travail de la pens&#233;e, dernier &#233;tage de la promesse selon laquelle la machine prendrait la peine et l&#8217;homme garderait le penser. Quand cet &#233;tage s&#8217;automatise, la bifurcation cesse d&#8217;&#234;tre sectorielle. Elle devient totale, et c&#8217;est &#224; l&#8217;&#233;cole qu&#8217;elle se pr&#233;sente, parce que l&#8217;&#233;cole est l&#8217;institution charg&#233;e de pr&#233;parer les humains &#224; un monde dont plus personne ne sait dire quelle place il leur r&#233;serve.</p><p>Les deux branches sont celles de tout le dossier. Si le gain de la machine est capt&#233;, le travail se rar&#233;fie par le haut comme par le bas, et l&#8217;&#233;cole redevient m&#233;caniquement ce que le deuxi&#232;me volet a montr&#233; qu&#8217;elle n&#8217;avait jamais cess&#233; d&#8217;&#234;tre, une machine de tri. Une machine de tri durcie, puisque les places &#224; distribuer se rar&#233;fient, et instrument&#233;e jusqu&#8217;au trait de stylo, quel que soit l&#8217;habillage p&#233;dagogique. Si le gain est partag&#233;, l&#8217;&#233;cole doit former &#224; une vie que le travail ne structure plus, et le vocabulaire en garde la m&#233;moire. Le grec <em>schol&#232;</em>, dont &#171; &#233;cole &#187; descend, d&#233;signait le loisir, le temps que l&#8217;homme libre consacrait &#224; ce qui ne servait &#224; rien d&#8217;autre qu&#8217;&#224; lui. L&#8217;&#233;cole industrielle a retourn&#233; le mot en antichambre de l&#8217;emploi, et la bifurcation lui offre de retrouver son sens.</p><p>Que resterait-il alors &#224; former ? Pr&#233;cis&#233;ment ce que la boucle ne produit pas. Le jugement, la capacit&#233; d&#8217;&#233;valuer ce qu&#8217;on n&#8217;a pas fabriqu&#233; soi-m&#234;me, qui ne s&#8217;acquiert qu&#8217;en fabriquant, raison pour laquelle le troisi&#232;me volet a montr&#233; que la production scolaire, sans valeur comme produit, restait indispensable comme moyen. La d&#233;finition des probl&#232;mes, puisque la machine r&#233;sout ce qu&#8217;on lui soumet, mais savoir quoi lui soumettre, et pourquoi, ne se d&#233;l&#232;gue pas. Une &#233;pist&#233;mologie pratique pour un monde o&#249; le faux plausible ne co&#251;te plus rien &#224; fabriquer. La responsabilit&#233;, dont l&#8217;exp&#233;rience du &#171; premier auteur &#187; &#233;tablit par l&#8217;absurde qu&#8217;elle est ind&#233;l&#233;gable : une signature sans personne pour en r&#233;pondre a oblig&#233; l&#8217;institution &#224; inventer la note de fabrication. Et la coop&#233;ration entre humains, sous-produit gratuit de la classe qu&#8217;il faudra d&#233;sormais produire &#224; dessein.</p><h2>Ce que devient l&#8217;heure et ce que devient l&#8217;enfant se d&#233;cident au m&#234;me endroit</h2><p>La machine ne tranchera rien de ce qui la traverse. L&#8217;heure qu&#8217;elle retranche est-elle loisir ou licenciement ? L&#8217;&#233;cole qu&#8217;elle &#233;quipe forme-t-elle des juges ou des tri&#233;s ? La boucle dont elle est le centre, &#224; qui appartient-elle ? Ces questions se d&#233;cident au m&#234;me endroit pour l&#8217;usine et pour l&#8217;&#233;cole, hors de l&#8217;atelier, hors de la classe, l&#224; o&#249; se distribuent les gains et se r&#233;digent les r&#232;gles de propri&#233;t&#233;.</p><p>Notre dossier industriel se fermait sur la productivit&#233; que Gao Bo aide &#224; fabriquer, et qui appartiendra &#224; quelqu&#8217;un. Cette s&#233;rie se ferme sur son miroir exact : l&#8217;humain que l&#8217;&#233;cole fabrique, mesur&#233; trait par trait, soutenu par agent vocal, form&#233; par des ma&#238;tres entra&#238;n&#233;s contre la machine, &#224; partir d&#8217;un savoir que la machine commence &#224; signer, appartiendra-t-il &#224; lui-m&#234;me ? Il a un propri&#233;taire de mod&#232;le d&#8217;un c&#244;t&#233;, un &#233;l&#232;ve de l&#8217;autre, et entre les deux tout ce qu&#8217;une soci&#233;t&#233; d&#233;cide ou renonce &#224; d&#233;cider. L&#8217;annonce de Shanghai promettait que l&#8217;humain resterait sur sc&#232;ne pour veiller sur &#171; la profondeur de la pens&#233;e et l&#8217;&#233;clat de l&#8217;humanit&#233; &#187;. Veiller n&#8217;est pas poss&#233;der. &#192; qui ?</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7V2u!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40fcc973-5ec9-47c2-bba5-81965f38f8d7_1600x427.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7V2u!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40fcc973-5ec9-47c2-bba5-81965f38f8d7_1600x427.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7V2u!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40fcc973-5ec9-47c2-bba5-81965f38f8d7_1600x427.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7V2u!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40fcc973-5ec9-47c2-bba5-81965f38f8d7_1600x427.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7V2u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40fcc973-5ec9-47c2-bba5-81965f38f8d7_1600x427.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7V2u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40fcc973-5ec9-47c2-bba5-81965f38f8d7_1600x427.png" width="1456" height="389" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/40fcc973-5ec9-47c2-bba5-81965f38f8d7_1600x427.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:389,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:48477,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Sch&#233;ma : quatre &#233;tapes en ligne &#8212; Sommet, &#201;talon, Preuve, Boucle. La quatri&#232;me, Boucle, est marqu&#233;e en rouge : &#224; qui appartient l'humain form&#233; ?&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207942694?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40fcc973-5ec9-47c2-bba5-81965f38f8d7_1600x427.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Sch&#233;ma : quatre &#233;tapes en ligne &#8212; Sommet, &#201;talon, Preuve, Boucle. La quatri&#232;me, Boucle, est marqu&#233;e en rouge : &#224; qui appartient l'humain form&#233; ?" title="Sch&#233;ma : quatre &#233;tapes en ligne &#8212; Sommet, &#201;talon, Preuve, Boucle. La quatri&#232;me, Boucle, est marqu&#233;e en rouge : &#224; qui appartient l'humain form&#233; ?" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7V2u!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40fcc973-5ec9-47c2-bba5-81965f38f8d7_1600x427.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7V2u!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40fcc973-5ec9-47c2-bba5-81965f38f8d7_1600x427.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7V2u!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40fcc973-5ec9-47c2-bba5-81965f38f8d7_1600x427.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7V2u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40fcc973-5ec9-47c2-bba5-81965f38f8d7_1600x427.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Le parcours de la s&#233;rie : quatre stations, une question. La derni&#232;re s&#8217;allume.</figcaption></figure></div><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Toutes nos publications sont gratuites et en Copyleft. Elles peuvent &#234;tre republi&#233;es, int&#233;gralement ou partiellement, aux conditions suivantes :<br>&#8594; respect de l&#8217;intitul&#233; et du contenu<br>(texte, images, notes d&#8217;&#233;diteur ou de traducteur, encadr&#233;s)<br>&#8594;</strong> <strong>indication du ou des auteurs et/ou traducteurs<br>&#8594; lien cliquable vers la source.<br>Toute mon&#233;tisation ou utilisation commerciale de ces publications est exclue et fera l&#8217;objet de poursuites.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Éducation 3/4] Le devoir rendu ne prouve plus rien. La preuve remonte vers sa fabrication]]></title><description><![CDATA[Un stylo qui filme le raisonnement, un agent vocal qui fait soutenir sa copie, une note de fabrication exig&#233;e du chercheur. Trois terrains sans lien, un m&#234;me d&#233;placement de la preuve, du produit vers le processus. Et partout, l'instrument nouveau point&#233; vers un objectif ancien.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-34-le-devoir-rendu-ne-prouve</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-34-le-devoir-rendu-ne-prouve</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 25 Jul 2026 05:01:34 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xM-g!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/bildung-34-die-abgegebene-arbeit">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-34-the-paper-proves-nothing">English</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/educacion-34-el-trabajo-entregado">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-34-le-devoir-rendu-ne-prouve">Fran&#231;ais</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/istruzione-34-il-compito-consegnato">Italiano</a></p><p><em>Quand n&#8217;importe qui, ou n&#8217;importe quoi, peut avoir fabriqu&#233; le devoir rendu, l&#8217;&#233;valuation remonte vers sa fabrication. Troisi&#232;me volet de la s&#233;rie sur ce que la machine fait &#224; l&#8217;&#233;cole, et sur qui d&#233;cidera de ce qu&#8217;on fait de l&#8217;humain.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xM-g!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xM-g!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xM-g!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xM-g!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xM-g!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xM-g!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1147084,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Illustration : &#224; gauche, une pile de copies termin&#233;es en gris p&#226;le, ignor&#233;e. Au centre, une main tient un stylo dont le trait continu, en rouge, serpente sur la page. Une grande loupe noire est pos&#233;e sur le trait, pas sur la pile. Sur le corps du stylo, une cam&#233;ra rouge capte le geste. L'&#233;valuation regarde la fabrication, plus le produit.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207925583?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Illustration : &#224; gauche, une pile de copies termin&#233;es en gris p&#226;le, ignor&#233;e. Au centre, une main tient un stylo dont le trait continu, en rouge, serpente sur la page. Une grande loupe noire est pos&#233;e sur le trait, pas sur la pile. Sur le corps du stylo, une cam&#233;ra rouge capte le geste. L'&#233;valuation regarde la fabrication, plus le produit." title="Illustration : &#224; gauche, une pile de copies termin&#233;es en gris p&#226;le, ignor&#233;e. Au centre, une main tient un stylo dont le trait continu, en rouge, serpente sur la page. Une grande loupe noire est pos&#233;e sur le trait, pas sur la pile. Sur le corps du stylo, une cam&#233;ra rouge capte le geste. L'&#233;valuation regarde la fabrication, plus le produit." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xM-g!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xM-g!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xM-g!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xM-g!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F24d071f8-a0a0-44ba-a5f8-85c67a979b8a_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">La loupe a chang&#233; d&#8217;objet : elle ne lit plus la copie, elle suit la main qui l&#8217;&#233;crit.</figcaption></figure></div><h2>L&#8217;&#233;tudiant a remis sa copie. Trois jours plus tard, une voix l&#8217;interroge dessus.</h2><p>Le point de d&#233;part est new-yorkais, dat&#233; et document&#233; jusque dans ses prompts. &#192; l&#8217;automne 2025, dans un cours de la Stern School of Business (Universit&#233; de New York), les devoirs pr&#233;paratoires remis par les &#233;tudiants deviennent &#171; suspicieusement bons &#187;. Dignes, &#233;crira le professeur Panos Ipeirotis, &#171; d&#8217;un m&#233;mo McKinsey pass&#233; par trois tours de relecture &#187;. Il se met &#224; interroger les &#233;tudiants &#224; froid, en classe. Beaucoup de ceux qui avaient remis un travail soign&#233; ne peuvent pas expliquer des choix &#233;l&#233;mentaires de leur propre copie apr&#232;s deux questions. Certains ne peuvent pas r&#233;pondre du tout. L&#8217;ancien syst&#232;me, o&#249; la copie remise mesurait la compr&#233;hension, est, conclut-il, &#171; mort, disparu, kaput &#187;. Sa r&#233;ponse, con&#231;ue avec son coll&#232;gue Konstantinos Rizakos, est de &#171; combattre le feu par le feu &#187;. Un agent vocal m&#232;ne des examens oraux personnalis&#233;s. Trois mod&#232;les de langage diff&#233;rents notent les transcriptions. Le tout co&#251;te 42 cents par &#233;tudiant (environ 37 centimes d&#8217;euro). La proposition est <a href="https://www.behind-the-enemy-lines.com/2025/12/fighting-fire-with-fire-scalable-oral.html">publi&#233;e sur son blog</a> et <a href="https://arxiv.org/html/2603.18221v1">d&#233;velopp&#233;e en article</a>.</p><p>Le dispositif g&#233;n&#233;rique que <a href="https://drphilippahardman.substack.com/p/the-quiet-reinvention-of-assessment">d&#233;crivent d&#233;sormais les sp&#233;cialistes de l&#8217;ing&#233;nierie p&#233;dagogique</a> suit ce sch&#233;ma en deux temps. L&#8217;&#233;tudiant remet son travail &#233;crit, comme il l&#8217;a toujours fait. Deux ou trois jours plus tard, il le soutient pendant dix &#224; quinze minutes face &#224; un agent vocal qui a lu sa copie et adapte ses questions aux r&#233;ponses qu&#8217;il re&#231;oit. La note ne sanctionne plus le document remis, mais la capacit&#233; de son auteur pr&#233;sum&#233; &#224; en r&#233;pondre.</p><p>Selon <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-and-more-teachers-and-students-are-using-ai-even-though-it-might-do-more-harm-than-good-275650">l&#8217;enqu&#234;te du Center for Democracy and Technology d&#233;j&#224; cit&#233;e dans cette s&#233;rie</a>, 71 % des enseignants usam&#233;ricains d&#233;clarent que, lorsque les &#233;l&#232;ves utilisent l&#8217;IA pour leurs travaux, il leur est difficile de savoir si le travail rendu est bien le leur. Et les d&#233;tecteurs automatiques cens&#233;s trancher se r&#233;v&#232;lent <a href="https://edworkforce.house.gov/uploadedfiles/2.24.26_kiley_opening_statement.pdf">inad&#233;quats, avec des taux de faux positifs</a> qui interdisent d&#8217;en faire une preuve. Le devoir rendu, qu&#8217;il s&#8217;agisse d&#8217;une dissertation, d&#8217;un rapport ou de code, a cess&#233; d&#8217;&#234;tre un signal fiable. N&#8217;importe qui, ou n&#8217;importe quoi, peut l&#8217;avoir fabriqu&#233;, et rien dans l&#8217;objet lui-m&#234;me ne permet de le dire. Or toute l&#8217;&#233;valuation moderne reposait sur cet objet. Quand le produit ne prouve plus rien, il ne reste qu&#8217;une direction o&#249; chercher la preuve : en amont, vers sa fabrication.</p><h2>L&#8217;oral, forme ancienne, redevient l&#8217;&#233;preuve &#233;tanche. Et c&#8217;est la machine qui a tu&#233; la copie qui fait passer la soutenance.</h2><p>La premi&#232;re voie de remont&#233;e est la plus vieille du monde acad&#233;mique. La disputatio &#233;tait l&#8217;exercice de l&#8217;universit&#233; m&#233;di&#233;vale o&#249; le candidat d&#233;fendait oralement ses th&#232;ses contre les objections, seul moyen d&#8217;&#233;tablir qu&#8217;il poss&#233;dait ce qu&#8217;il avan&#231;ait. <a href="https://blog.edvisor.ai/oral-exam/">L&#8217;universit&#233; de Pennsylvanie adosse d&#233;sormais des soutenances orales aux travaux &#233;crits</a>, au nom de l&#8217;int&#233;grit&#233; acad&#233;mique autant que de l&#8217;esprit critique. Et <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2025.2549945">une &#233;tude men&#233;e sur trois ans, 290 &#233;tudiants et 25 mati&#232;res</a> dans une universit&#233; australienne (Droulers, Krautloher &amp; Shaeri, <em>Teaching in Higher Education</em>, 2026) conclut que l&#8217;&#233;valuation orale interactive surpasse l&#8217;&#233;crit en validit&#233; comme en fiabilit&#233;, r&#233;duit la fraude et a la pr&#233;f&#233;rence des &#233;tudiants. On peut faire &#233;crire sa copie par la machine. On ne peut pas lui faire passer son oral &#224; sa place.</p><p>L&#8217;objection est connue depuis toujours. L&#8217;oral ne se g&#233;n&#233;ralise pas : faire soutenir chaque devoir de chaque &#233;tudiant exige une masse salariale que l&#8217;&#233;crit avait pr&#233;cis&#233;ment permis d&#8217;&#233;conomiser. C&#8217;est m&#234;me pour cela que l&#8217;&#233;crit avait gagn&#233;.</p><p>Cette objection, par contre, est lev&#233;e par la machine elle-m&#234;me. L&#8217;agent vocal qui interroge l&#8217;&#233;tudiant co&#251;te moins d&#8217;un demi-dollar par passage, ne fatigue pas, et interroge autant d&#8217;&#233;tudiants en parall&#232;le qu&#8217;on le souhaite. La technologie qui a d&#233;truit la valeur probante de la copie est enr&#244;l&#233;e pour administrer l&#8217;&#233;preuve qui la remplace. Les rat&#233;s de la premi&#232;re version new-yorkaise sont document&#233;s par ses concepteurs eux-m&#234;mes. La voix clon&#233;e du professeur est per&#231;ue comme &#171; criant &#187; sur les &#233;tudiants. Des questions sont pos&#233;es en rafale malgr&#233; les consignes. Et 83 % des &#233;tudiants jugent l&#8217;&#233;preuve plus stressante que l&#8217;&#233;crit, ce qui se comprend : 83 % n&#8217;avaient jamais pass&#233; d&#8217;oral de leur vie. Il n&#8217;emp&#234;che : 70 % reconnaissent que le format teste la compr&#233;hension r&#233;elle. La machine a d&#233;truit la valeur probante du produit, et c&#8217;est &#224; la machine qu&#8217;on confie la v&#233;rification du processus. Le lecteur de cette s&#233;rie reconna&#238;tra le motif. Il le retrouvera, agrandi, au dernier &#233;pisode.</p><h2>&#192; Hangzhou, la preuve n&#8217;attend m&#234;me plus le devoir. Le stylo regarde la main &#233;crire.</h2><p>La deuxi&#232;me voie va plus loin, et nous l&#8217;avons laiss&#233;e en r&#233;serve au volet pr&#233;c&#233;dent. &#192; l&#8217;&#201;cole du futur du lac Xiang, pr&#232;s de Hangzhou, Gao Yilin, quinze ans, &#233;crit ses formules de math&#233;matiques avec un stylo dont la pointe contient une cam&#233;ra miniature et le corps un capteur de pression. Chaque trait, sa forme et la force appliqu&#233;e, est capt&#233; comme donn&#233;e. &#171; L&#8217;IA analyse cela et dit imm&#233;diatement &#224; mon professeur comment j&#8217;ai abord&#233; le probl&#232;me et exactement o&#249; j&#8217;ai but&#233; &#187;, explique l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve. Quelques instants apr&#232;s un contr&#244;le, son professeur s&#8217;approche de son bureau. La r&#233;ponse &#233;tait correcte, mais il existait une fa&#231;on plus simple de r&#233;soudre l&#8217;&#233;quation, et l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve devrait y r&#233;fl&#233;chir &#224; nouveau. Les donn&#233;es des stylos permettent d&#8217;identifier rapidement les &#233;l&#232;ves en difficult&#233;, jusqu&#8217;&#224; leur place dans la salle. L&#8217;instrumentation s&#8217;&#233;tend &#224; l&#8217;assiette de cantine, qui compte les calories, et au bracelet qui suit le rythme cardiaque en cours de sport. &#171; Ce n&#8217;est pas de la surveillance, c&#8217;est une forme de coop&#233;ration entre l&#8217;humain et l&#8217;IA dans l&#8217;&#233;ducation &#187;, assure le directeur de l&#8217;&#233;cole, Ye Cuiwei.</p><p>La logique est plus radicale que celle de l&#8217;oral. L&#8217;oral v&#233;rifie le processus apr&#232;s coup, en interrogeant la m&#233;moire de la fabrication. Le stylo capte le processus &#224; la source, pendant qu&#8217;il a lieu. Il n&#8217;y a plus rien &#224; v&#233;rifier, puisque tout est enregistr&#233;. La copie n&#8217;est plus qu&#8217;un sous-produit de la trace. Personne, &#224; Hangzhou, ne cherche des tricheurs. Le dispositif ne r&#233;pond pas &#224; la contamination du produit. Il sert le pilotage fin de la progression, point&#233; vers le concours terminal dont le volet pr&#233;c&#233;dent a montr&#233; qu&#8217;il demeurait intact. Les mondes et les mobiles diff&#232;rent, mais le d&#233;placement de la preuve est le m&#234;me.</p><h2>Le chercheur n&#8217;y &#233;chappe pas. L&#8217;article para&#238;tra avec sa note de fabrication.</h2><p>La troisi&#232;me voie remonte jusqu&#8217;&#224; l&#8217;&#233;tage que le premier volet de cette s&#233;rie a d&#233;crit, le laboratoire. Dans son exp&#233;rience d&#8217;articles sign&#233;s par l&#8217;IA en &#171; premier auteur &#187;, la revue de l&#8217;Universit&#233; normale de Chine orientale a fix&#233; un protocole de publication en trois pi&#232;ces : le texte, la recommandation du comit&#233;, et une note d&#233;crivant le processus d&#8217;&#233;criture. La note n&#8217;est pas un ornement. Elle est l&#8217;aveu que la signature ne suffit plus &#224; &#233;tablir la provenance du travail, aveu que nous relevions d&#232;s le premier &#233;pisode. Le chercheur, dernier maillon de la cha&#238;ne &#233;ducative, est soumis au m&#234;me r&#233;gime que l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve de Hangzhou et l&#8217;&#233;tudiant de Pennsylvanie. Ce qu&#8217;il remet ne vaut que document&#233; par la mani&#232;re dont il l&#8217;a fabriqu&#233;.</p><h2>Trois &#233;tages, une r&#232;gle. Et partout l&#8217;instrument nouveau point&#233; vers un objectif ancien.</h2><p>Un coll&#232;ge chinois, des universit&#233;s occidentales, une revue acad&#233;mique de Shanghai. Trois terrains sans coordination possible, avec des populations diff&#233;rentes (l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve, l&#8217;&#233;tudiant, le chercheur) et des mobiles distincts. Et un seul d&#233;placement : la preuve quitte le produit et remonte vers le processus. Quand n&#8217;importe quoi peut avoir fabriqu&#233; l&#8217;objet, l&#8217;objet ne t&#233;moigne plus de rien. Seule la fabrication t&#233;moigne : observ&#233;e en direct (le stylo), reconstitu&#233;e sous interrogation (l&#8217;oral), ou d&#233;clar&#233;e sous protocole (la note). C&#8217;est, &#224; notre connaissance, le r&#233;sultat le plus solidement &#233;tabli de toute cette enqu&#234;te, pr&#233;cis&#233;ment parce que les trois terrains sont ind&#233;pendants.</p><p>La convergence, par contre, a un second versant. Partout, l&#8217;instrument nouveau est point&#233; vers un objectif ancien. En Occident, la remont&#233;e vers le processus sert &#224; attraper des tricheurs et &#224; restaurer l&#8217;ancienne &#233;conomie de la preuve, pas &#224; en fonder une autre. &#192; Hangzhou, elle sert &#224; mieux pr&#233;parer le m&#234;me concours. &#192; Shanghai, elle sert &#224; cr&#233;dibiliser une exp&#233;rience institutionnelle. Nulle part elle ne proc&#232;de d&#8217;une red&#233;finition de ce que l&#8217;&#233;cole doit produire. L&#8217;appareil de mesure du r&#233;gime nouveau pr&#233;c&#232;de, partout, la question des finalit&#233;s. Et chaque voie a son prix, qu&#8217;aucun des trois terrains n&#8217;affiche. L&#8217;oral g&#233;n&#233;ralis&#233; suppose de payer des humains ou de s&#8217;en remettre &#224; la machine pour juger les humains. La captation &#224; la source installe une infrastructure de surveillance compl&#232;te de l&#8217;enfance, quel que soit le nom qu&#8217;on lui donne. La note d&#233;clarative ne vaut que ce que vaut la parole de celui qui la signe. Le choix entre ces prix est politique, pas p&#233;dagogique.</p><h2>Le devoir ne vaut plus que comme exercice. Et la machine n&#8217;y est interdite qu&#8217;&#224; l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve.</h2><p>Le volet pr&#233;c&#233;dent a &#233;tabli, essai randomis&#233; &#224; l&#8217;appui, que d&#233;l&#233;guer le travail &#224; la machine d&#233;truit le produit de l&#8217;&#233;cole, l&#8217;apprentissage lui-m&#234;me. Le pr&#233;sent volet &#233;tablit que le devoir rendu ne prouve plus rien. Mettez les deux ensemble, et une cons&#233;quence appara&#238;t que personne n&#8217;assume &#224; voix haute : la production scolaire n&#8217;a plus aucune valeur comme produit, et elle reste indispensable comme moyen. La dissertation que personne ne lira, le probl&#232;me r&#233;solu mille fois avant, l&#8217;exp&#233;rience de physique au r&#233;sultat connu ne valent que par la transformation de celui qui les fabrique. Comme l&#8217;halt&#232;re ne vaut que par le muscle qu&#8217;il oblige &#224; produire, et c&#8217;est pourquoi personne n&#8217;apporte de chariot &#233;l&#233;vateur dans une salle de musculation.</p><p>L&#8217;&#233;cole cons&#233;quente devrait donc proscrire l&#8217;outil dans la main de l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve : devenir, &#224; rebours du monde entier, le seul lieu social o&#249; l&#8217;usage de l&#8217;instrument universel serait interdit par principe &#224; ceux qu&#8217;on y forme. Aucune institution ne l&#8217;assume en ces termes. Toutes s&#8217;en approchent en pratique, une &#233;preuve &#233;tanche &#224; la fois : l&#8217;oral o&#249; la machine ne peut pas souffler, le contr&#244;le sur table, le travail soutenu en personne. L&#8217;asym&#233;trie qui en r&#233;sulte est le visage r&#233;el de cette &#233;cole : la machine proscrite dans la main de l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve, omnipr&#233;sente dans celle de l&#8217;institution, interrogeant l&#8217;&#233;tudiant, captant le trait de stylo, notant sur transcription. L&#8217;interdiction ne vaut que d&#8217;un c&#244;t&#233; du pupitre. L&#8217;inversion d&#233;fait la question dont ce dossier est parti. Il ne s&#8217;agit plus de savoir combien de machine faire entrer dans l&#8217;&#233;cole, mais combien d&#8217;&#233;cole pr&#233;server de la machine, et de pr&#233;ciser pour qui la pr&#233;servation vaut.</p><p>L&#8217;agent vocal, le stylo et la note appartiennent &#224; quelqu&#8217;un. La preuve a remont&#233; vers le processus. Qui poss&#232;de l&#8217;appareil qui enregistre le processus, et, par lui, l&#8217;humain qu&#8217;on y fabrique ? C&#8217;est ce que le dernier volet affrontera.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKv0!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94f26f2f-4969-48bb-89fc-f7d4666ba88b_5004x1338.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKv0!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94f26f2f-4969-48bb-89fc-f7d4666ba88b_5004x1338.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKv0!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94f26f2f-4969-48bb-89fc-f7d4666ba88b_5004x1338.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKv0!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94f26f2f-4969-48bb-89fc-f7d4666ba88b_5004x1338.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKv0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94f26f2f-4969-48bb-89fc-f7d4666ba88b_5004x1338.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKv0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94f26f2f-4969-48bb-89fc-f7d4666ba88b_5004x1338.png" width="1456" height="389" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/94f26f2f-4969-48bb-89fc-f7d4666ba88b_5004x1338.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:389,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:124536,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Sch&#233;ma : quatre &#233;tapes en ligne, Sommet, &#201;talon, Preuve, Boucle. La troisi&#232;me, Preuve, est marqu&#233;e en rouge : la preuve passe du devoir rendu &#224; sa fabrication.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207925583?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94f26f2f-4969-48bb-89fc-f7d4666ba88b_5004x1338.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Sch&#233;ma : quatre &#233;tapes en ligne, Sommet, &#201;talon, Preuve, Boucle. La troisi&#232;me, Preuve, est marqu&#233;e en rouge : la preuve passe du devoir rendu &#224; sa fabrication." title="Sch&#233;ma : quatre &#233;tapes en ligne, Sommet, &#201;talon, Preuve, Boucle. La troisi&#232;me, Preuve, est marqu&#233;e en rouge : la preuve passe du devoir rendu &#224; sa fabrication." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKv0!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94f26f2f-4969-48bb-89fc-f7d4666ba88b_5004x1338.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKv0!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94f26f2f-4969-48bb-89fc-f7d4666ba88b_5004x1338.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKv0!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94f26f2f-4969-48bb-89fc-f7d4666ba88b_5004x1338.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKv0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94f26f2f-4969-48bb-89fc-f7d4666ba88b_5004x1338.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Le parcours de la s&#233;rie : quatre stations, une question.</figcaption></figure></div><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Toutes nos publications sont gratuites et en Copyleft. Elles peuvent &#234;tre republi&#233;es, int&#233;gralement ou partiellement, aux conditions suivantes :<br>&#8594; respect de l&#8217;intitul&#233; et du contenu<br>(texte, images, notes d&#8217;&#233;diteur ou de traducteur, encadr&#233;s)<br>&#8594;</strong> <strong>indication du ou des auteurs et/ou traducteurs<br>&#8594; lien cliquable vers la source.<br>Toute mon&#233;tisation ou utilisation commerciale de ces publications est exclue et fera l&#8217;objet de poursuites.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Education 3/4] The paper proves nothing anymore. Proof moves back to the making.]]></title><description><![CDATA[A pen that films reasoning, a voice agent that grills students on their papers, a fabrication note required of the researcher. Three unrelated fields, one displacement of proof from product to process. And everywhere, the new instrument aimed at an old objective.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-34-the-paper-proves-nothing</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-34-the-paper-proves-nothing</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 25 Jul 2026 05:01:34 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gcWe!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/bildung-34-die-abgegebene-arbeit">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-34-the-paper-proves-nothing">English</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/educacion-34-el-trabajo-entregado">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-34-le-devoir-rendu-ne-prouve">Fran&#231;ais</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/istruzione-34-il-compito-consegnato">Italiano</a></p><p><em>When anyone, or anything, may have made the paper handed in, evaluation moves back to the making. Third in the four-part series on what the machine is doing to school, and on who will decide what happens to the human.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gcWe!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gcWe!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gcWe!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gcWe!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gcWe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gcWe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1147084,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Illustration: on the left, a stack of finished papers in pale grey, ignored; in the centre, a hand holds a pen whose continuous stroke, in red, winds across the page; a large black magnifying glass rests on the stroke, not on the stack. On the pen's barrel, a red camera captures the gesture. Evaluation looks at the making, no longer at the product.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/208304720?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Illustration: on the left, a stack of finished papers in pale grey, ignored; in the centre, a hand holds a pen whose continuous stroke, in red, winds across the page; a large black magnifying glass rests on the stroke, not on the stack. On the pen's barrel, a red camera captures the gesture. Evaluation looks at the making, no longer at the product." title="Illustration: on the left, a stack of finished papers in pale grey, ignored; in the centre, a hand holds a pen whose continuous stroke, in red, winds across the page; a large black magnifying glass rests on the stroke, not on the stack. On the pen's barrel, a red camera captures the gesture. Evaluation looks at the making, no longer at the product." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gcWe!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gcWe!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gcWe!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gcWe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd97cdb34-e359-48ac-8702-4e08b7d95a0e_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The magnifying glass has changed object. It no longer reads the paper; it follows the hand that writes it.</figcaption></figure></div><h2>The paper is in. Three days later, a voice starts asking about it.</h2><p>Start in New York, autumn 2025, at NYU&#8217;s Stern School of Business. Professor Panos Ipeirotis noticed the preparatory assignments in one of his courses were coming in &#8220;suspiciously good&#8221;. In his phrase, they were worthy of a McKinsey memo that had survived three rounds of editing. He started cold-calling students in class. Many who had turned in thoughtful, well-structured work &#8220;could not explain basic choices in their own submission after two follow-up questions&#8221;. Some could not answer at all. The old system, in which the paper handed in measured understanding, he concludes, is &#8220;dead, gone, kaput&#8221;. His response, worked out with colleague Konstantinos Rizakos, was fighting fire with fire. A voice agent conducts personalised oral examinations. Three different language models grade the transcripts. The whole thing costs 42 cents per student. The proposal is <a href="https://www.behind-the-enemy-lines.com/2025/12/fighting-fire-with-fire-scalable-oral.html">on his blog</a> and <a href="https://arxiv.org/html/2603.18221v1">written up as a paper</a>.</p><p>The pattern <a href="https://drphilippahardman.substack.com/p/the-quiet-reinvention-of-assessment">learning-design specialists now describe</a> has two steps. The student hands in his written work, as he always has. Two or three days later, he defends it for ten to fifteen minutes to a voice agent that has read his paper and adapts its questions to the answers it gets. The grade no longer marks the paper. It marks the ability of the presumed author to answer for it.</p><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/more-and-more-teachers-and-students-are-using-ai-even-though-it-might-do-more-harm-than-good-275650">The Center for Democracy and Technology survey</a> already cited in this series has 71 % of USAmerican teachers reporting that when pupils use AI on their assignments, it is hard to tell whether the work handed in is really the pupil&#8217;s own. And the automatic detectors supposed to settle the matter turn out to be <a href="https://edworkforce.house.gov/uploadedfiles/2.24.26_kiley_opening_statement.pdf">inadequate, with false-positive rates</a> that rule them out as evidence. The paper handed in, whether essay, report or code, has stopped being a reliable signal. Anyone, or anything, may have made it, and nothing in the object itself tells you which. Yet all of modern assessment rested on that object. When the product proves nothing, only one direction is left for proof to move in: upstream, back to the making.</p><h2>The oral makes a comeback as the watertight test. And the machine that killed the paper administers it.</h2><p>The first route back upstream is the oldest in the academic world. The disputatio was the medieval university&#8217;s exercise in which the candidate defended his theses orally against objections, the only way of establishing that he actually possessed what he was advancing. <a href="https://blog.edvisor.ai/oral-exam/">The University of Pennsylvania now pairs oral defences with written work</a>, in the name of academic integrity as much as critical thinking. And <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2025.2549945">a three-year Australian study of 290 students across 25 subjects</a> (Droulers, Krautloher &amp; Shaeri, <em>Teaching in Higher Education</em>, 2026) finds interactive oral assessment beats written work on both validity and reliability, reduces fraud, and is preferred by students. The machine can write your paper for you. It cannot sit your oral for you.</p><p>The objection to the oral is old and known. It cannot be generalised: having every student defend every assignment costs a wage bill that written work had precisely saved. That is why written work had won in the first place.</p><p>The machine, though, lifts that objection. The voice agent that questions the student costs less than half a dollar per session, does not tire, and can question as many students in parallel as needed. The technology that broke the paper as evidence is now put to work administering the test that replaces it. The failures of the first New York version are documented by its designers themselves. The professor&#8217;s cloned voice was perceived as &#8220;shouting&#8221; at students. Questions came in bursts despite the instructions. And 83 % of students found the test more stressful than written work, which is easy to understand: 83 % had never sat an oral in their lives. Even so, 70 % acknowledge the format tests genuine understanding. The machine destroyed the paper as evidence, and the same machine now verifies the process. Readers of this series will recognise the pattern. They will meet it again, on a bigger scale, in the final episode.</p><h2>In Hangzhou, proof does not wait for the assignment. The pen watches the hand write.</h2><p>The second route goes further, and the previous episode left it in reserve. At the Xiang Lake Future School near Hangzhou, Gao Yilin, fifteen, writes her mathematics formulas with a pen whose tip contains a miniature camera and whose barrel holds a pressure sensor. Every stroke, its shape and the force applied, is captured as data. &#8220;The AI analyzes it and immediately tells my teacher how I approached the problem and exactly where I got stuck,&#8221; the pupil explains. Moments after a test, her teacher walks over to her desk. The answer was correct, but there was a simpler way to solve the equation, and she should think it through again. Data from the pens allow teachers to identify struggling pupils quickly, down to where they are seated in the classroom. The instrumentation extends to the canteen tray, which counts calories, and to the wristband that tracks heart rate in sports class. &#8220;This isn&#8217;t surveillance, it&#8217;s a form of human-AI cooperation in education,&#8221; the school&#8217;s principal, Ye Cuiwei, assures. [Quote to be checked verbatim against the archived original before publication.]</p><p>The Hangzhou logic goes further than the oral&#8217;s. The oral verifies the process after the fact, by questioning the memory of the making. The pen captures the process at the source, while it is happening. Nothing is left to verify, because everything has been recorded. The paper is no more than a by-product of the trace. Nobody in Hangzhou is hunting cheats. The device does not respond to product contamination; it serves the fine-grained steering of pupil progress, aimed at the terminal examination that, as the previous episode showed, stays intact. The two worlds and motives are different, but the displacement of proof is the same.</p><h2>The researcher does not escape either. The paper comes with its fabrication note.</h2><p>The third route climbs to the storey the first episode of this series described, the laboratory. In its experiment with papers signed by AI as &#8220;first author&#8221;, the journal of East China Normal University has set a three-part publication protocol: the text, the editorial committee&#8217;s recommendation, and a note describing the writing process. The note is no ornament. It is the admission that the signature no longer establishes provenance, an admission the first episode already flagged. The researcher, last link in the educational chain, is under the same regime as the pupil in Hangzhou and the student in Pennsylvania. What is handed in counts only as documented by the way it was made.</p><h2>Three storeys, one rule. And everywhere the new instrument aimed at an old objective.</h2><p>A Chinese middle school, Western universities, an academic journal in Shanghai. Three uncoordinated fields, three populations (pupil, student, researcher), three different motives. And a single displacement: proof leaves the product and moves back to the process. When anything can have made the object, the object testifies to nothing. Only the making testifies: observed live (the pen), reconstructed under questioning (the oral), or declared under protocol (the note). It is, to our knowledge, the most solidly established result of the whole inquiry, precisely because the three fields are independent.</p><p>The convergence, though, has a second face. Everywhere, the new instrument aims at an old objective. In the West, the climb back to the process is about catching cheats and restoring the old economy of proof, not founding another one. In Hangzhou, it sharpens preparation for the same examination. In Shanghai, it lends credibility to an institutional experiment. Nowhere does it come from a redefinition of what school must produce. The measuring apparatus of the new regime everywhere precedes the question of purposes. And each route has its price, which none of the three fields displays openly. The generalised oral means paying humans, or handing the judgement of humans over to the machine. Capture at the source installs an infrastructure of complete childhood surveillance, whatever name it is given. The declarative note is worth only the word of the one who signs it. The choice between these prices is political, not pedagogical.</p><h2>The assignment now counts only as exercise. And the machine is banned there for the pupil only.</h2><p>The previous episode established, with a randomised trial in support, that delegating the work to the machine destroys the school&#8217;s product, learning itself. This episode establishes that the paper handed in proves nothing anymore. Put the two together, and a consequence follows that nobody owns up to aloud: school output has no value as product, and yet stays indispensable as means. The essay nobody will read, the problem solved a thousand times before, the physics experiment with a known result count only through the transformation of the one who makes them. As the dumbbell counts only through the muscle it forces into being, which is why nobody brings a forklift into a weight room.</p><p>The consistent school would ban the tool from the pupil&#8217;s hand. Against the rest of the world, it would become the one social place where the universal instrument is forbidden, on principle, to those being trained there. No institution owns this in those terms. All approach it in practice, one watertight test at a time: the oral where the machine cannot whisper, the supervised written exam, the work defended in person. The asymmetry is the real face of this school: the machine banned in the pupil&#8217;s hand, and omnipresent in the institution&#8217;s, questioning the student, capturing the pen stroke, grading on transcript. The ban applies only on one side of the desk. The inversion undoes the question this whole dossier started from. It is no longer how much machine to let into school, but how much school to preserve from the machine, and for whom the preservation is to hold.</p><p>The voice agent, the pen and the note all belong to someone. Proof has moved back to the process. Who owns the apparatus that records the process, and, through it, the human being made there? That is what the next episode is about.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Yak!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe15ca924-3e55-4f25-88ea-ffd01482b36e_5004x1338.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Yak!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe15ca924-3e55-4f25-88ea-ffd01482b36e_5004x1338.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Yak!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe15ca924-3e55-4f25-88ea-ffd01482b36e_5004x1338.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Yak!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe15ca924-3e55-4f25-88ea-ffd01482b36e_5004x1338.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Yak!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe15ca924-3e55-4f25-88ea-ffd01482b36e_5004x1338.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Yak!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe15ca924-3e55-4f25-88ea-ffd01482b36e_5004x1338.png" width="1456" height="389" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e15ca924-3e55-4f25-88ea-ffd01482b36e_5004x1338.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:389,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:128463,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Diagram: four stages on a line &#8212; Summit, Yardstick, Proof, Loop. The third, Proof, is marked in red: proof moves from finished work to its making.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/208304720?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe15ca924-3e55-4f25-88ea-ffd01482b36e_5004x1338.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Diagram: four stages on a line &#8212; Summit, Yardstick, Proof, Loop. The third, Proof, is marked in red: proof moves from finished work to its making." title="Diagram: four stages on a line &#8212; Summit, Yardstick, Proof, Loop. The third, Proof, is marked in red: proof moves from finished work to its making." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Yak!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe15ca924-3e55-4f25-88ea-ffd01482b36e_5004x1338.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Yak!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe15ca924-3e55-4f25-88ea-ffd01482b36e_5004x1338.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Yak!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe15ca924-3e55-4f25-88ea-ffd01482b36e_5004x1338.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Yak!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe15ca924-3e55-4f25-88ea-ffd01482b36e_5004x1338.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The route of the series: four stations, one question.</figcaption></figure></div><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>All our publications are free and Copyleft. They may be republished, in whole or in part, under following conditions:</strong><br><strong>&#8594; keeping the title and content</strong><br><strong>(text, images, editor&#8217;s or translator&#8217;s notes, boxes)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; crediting the author(s) and/or translator(s)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; inserting a clickable link to the source.</strong><br><strong>Any monetization or commercial use of these publications is prohibited and will be subject to legal action.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Education 2/4] The USA and China reset the school. The yardstick stays put.]]></title><description><![CDATA[The Texan school without teachers proves itself with the tests of the school it claims to leave behind. The most instrumented school in the world leads to the most classical exam in the world. And the Chinese thinker who proposed dissolving the school pulled a single sentence from his programme: "the diploma will no longer count." Second episode.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-24-the-usa-and-china-reset</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-24-the-usa-and-china-reset</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 24 Jul 2026 05:01:53 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EC8n!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/bildung-24-die-usa-und-china-starten">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-24-the-usa-and-china-reset">English</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/educacion-24-los-usa-y-china-ponen">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-24-les-usa-et-la-chine">Fran&#231;ais</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/istruzione-24-gli-usa-e-la-cina-azzerano">Italiano</a></p><p><em>Two loud resets. Same stopping point on both sides: how success is measured. Second in a four-part series on what the machine is doing to school, and on who will decide what happens to the human.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EC8n!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EC8n!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EC8n!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EC8n!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EC8n!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EC8n!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1017163,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Illustration: a huge vertical graduated ruler in the centre; on the left, a traditional classroom in grey with a teacher at the board; on the right, a futuristic classroom where small red robotic tutors replace the teacher. Two entirely different schools, measured against the same ruler.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/208204725?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Illustration: a huge vertical graduated ruler in the centre; on the left, a traditional classroom in grey with a teacher at the board; on the right, a futuristic classroom where small red robotic tutors replace the teacher. Two entirely different schools, measured against the same ruler." title="Illustration: a huge vertical graduated ruler in the centre; on the left, a traditional classroom in grey with a teacher at the board; on the right, a futuristic classroom where small red robotic tutors replace the teacher. Two entirely different schools, measured against the same ruler." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EC8n!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EC8n!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EC8n!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EC8n!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6bd7ecc-7257-49b9-aae4-a13c78cbf287_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Everything divides these two schools except how success is measured: the same yardstick decides between them.</figcaption></figure></div><h2>In Texas, a school without teachers still measures itself by yesterday&#8217;s tests</h2><p>Alpha School, founded in Austin in 2014, sells itself in one phrase: &#8220;2 Hour Learning&#8221;. Two hours of academics a day, delivered end to end by adaptive software and AI tutors at each pupil&#8217;s own pace. The rest of the day goes to practical-skills workshops: public speaking, entrepreneurship, teamwork. No teachers, just &#8220;guides&#8221; who motivate and supervise without teaching. Every pupil gets thirty minutes a week one-on-one with theirs. Tuition runs from $10,000 to $75,000 a year depending on the campus, $40,000 at the Austin flagship. Nearly a dozen new campuses are set to open in the autumn of 2026, on top of some fifteen already running. The claims keep climbing: the brand pledges &#8220;2X in 2 hours&#8221;, the network reports gains more than twice the national average, and co-founder MacKenzie Price talks of pupils learning &#8220;ten times faster&#8221; than in an ordinary school.</p><p>The theoretical ground is old and serious. Benjamin Bloom&#8217;s &#8220;2 sigma problem&#8221;, laid out in 1984, found that the average pupil under one-to-one mastery tutoring reaches the level of the top 2 % of an ordinary class. One-to-one tutoring was unaffordable at system scale. The machine, the promise runs, would make it affordable.</p><p>Now watch what Alpha does with that promise. The school that has done away with teachers, classes and timetables proves itself with the very tools of the school it claims to leave behind: the same curricula, and above all the same standardised tests. Every result Alpha reports is expressed in percentiles of national assessments. Process replaced; goals and quality control untouched. A private operator selling to parents has to prove itself against a shared yardstick, or its results measure against nothing. It can&#8217;t change the yardstick, so it runs faster along the one already in place.</p><p>A few warnings on the record. Alpha&#8217;s results come from internal data, never independently checked, on an affluent, self-selected population. The Pennsylvania Department of Education, reviewing a charter application tied to the network, called the model &#8220;untested&#8221; and lacking evidence it meets state academic standards. And Alpha&#8217;s &#8220;AI&#8221;, by the founders&#8217; own admission, is mostly adaptive software of the IXL or Khan Academy sort, older than the large language models. The showroom runs ahead of the workshop, as readers of this series know by now.</p><h2>The USA&#8217;s mainstream path is grafting AI onto the old machine</h2><p>Alpha is the exception. The landscape has picked the other road by a wide margin. According to <a href="https://www.edweek.org/technology/rising-use-of-ai-in-schools-comes-with-big-downsides-for-students/2025/10">the Center for Democracy and Technology survey published in October 2025</a>, 85 % of USAmerican teachers and 86 % of pupils used AI during the past school year, for planning lessons, marking, differentiation &#8212; for the existing tasks of the existing school. Fifty-five per cent of teachers say the tool freed up direct time with pupils. The graft fits the shape of the teacher&#8217;s job for the same reason the factory humanoid fits the shape of the worker: nobody wants to rebuild the building. The institutional debate does exist, and it settles into a formula. <a href="https://crpe.org/the-debate-over-ai-in-education-is-stuck-lets-move-it-forward-in-responsible-ways-that-truly-serve-students/">A report from the Center on Reinventing Public Education</a> urges schools to be &#8220;ambidextrous&#8221;, improving what exists with one hand and building the new with the other, a formula that spares them the trouble of choosing.</p><h2>The pupil can&#8217;t leave the workshop: delegation destroys the product</h2><p>Here the industrial analogy that runs through this series hits its limit, and the limit is more instructive than the analogy. On the factory floor, the product doesn&#8217;t care who makes it. The machine welds, the weld holds, and the worker walks out. In school, the &#8220;product&#8221; is a transformation of the pupil, and the pupil can&#8217;t walk out. Only the teacher can. And if the machine does the work in the pupil&#8217;s place, the product never gets made.</p><p>One large randomised trial has documented this. About a thousand Turkish high-school students, in mathematics, split into three groups: no AI; raw access to GPT-4; and a GPT-4 tutor wrapped in pedagogical guardrails. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2422633122">Published in </a><em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2422633122">PNAS</a></em>, the journal of the US National Academy of Sciences, under the title &#8220;generative AI <em>without guardrails</em> can harm learning&#8221;, the study reports: the raw-access group did 48 % better on the assisted exercises, then 17 % worse than the control group on the exam taken without help. The guardrailed tutor, though, lifted assisted performance without hurting the exam. Delegation is what automation does at work. In learning, it destroys the product. That is the structural difference between the factory and the school, shown experimentally. A word of method: the negative effect is the most fragile of the three results, close to the threshold of statistical detection; this is one trial, not a law. A counterpoint exists, and it fits the same mechanism. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-97652-6">A randomised trial at Harvard</a> finds students learn about twice as much, in less time, with a purpose-built AI tutor than in an active-learning class. <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstreams/cd9cca5b-2ffd-4be1-8313-0f4d2ed6ef4f/download">A World Bank pilot in Nigeria</a>, after six weeks of teacher-supervised sessions, measures a 0.31 standard-deviation gain on the final assessment and 0.23 on English alone, the programme&#8217;s main target. (The standard deviation is educational research&#8217;s usual unit for effect sizes; a gain of that order moves the median pupil from roughly the 50th to the 62nd percentile, which the authors put at one and a half to two years of ordinary schooling.) Everything turns on the guardrails from the <em>PNAS</em> title: on who controls the relationship between the pupil and the machine.</p><h2>In Hangzhou, the state overhauls goals and measurement, but the exam holds</h2><p>The Chinese mirror flips the Texan case, item by item. Where Alpha swaps the process and keeps the goals and the checks, the augmented Chinese school keeps the process (classroom, teacher and workbook stay in place) and changes the other two. The state redefines the goals from above. The government&#8217;s January 2025 blueprint elevates AI-driven educational reform to national strategy, aiming at an education &#8220;among the best in the world&#8221; by 2035, in a country where the number of schools has dropped from over a million in the 1970s to 470,000 today. Measurement changes shape. At the Xiang Lake Future School near Hangzhou (an operator with more than thirty schools and 60,000 pupils), the pupil&#8217;s pen tracks every stroke and its pressure, and the instruments run from the canteen tray to the heart-rate wristband. The third episode will follow this migration from product to process, which reaches well beyond China.</p><p>Yet at the end of this thoroughly remeasured school, the gaokao stands. Intact. Sole judge of who goes where. The Chinese state has shown it can redefine what school is meant to produce and how the producing is observed. It has not touched the exam that decides everything. The most radical instrumentation in the world leads to the most classical exam in the world. Two readings are open: real redefinition of purposes, or fine-tuning of the drill for the same exam. Both probably run in parallel; the available sources, all warmly disposed to the system, don&#8217;t allow a verdict.</p><h2>Zhu Yongxin, or how a reset gets absorbed: 2019, 2023, 2025</h2><p>One man lets us measure, on paper, the exact space of the Chinese reset: Zhu Yongxin, central figure in Chinese pedagogy and deputy secretary-general of the Chinese People&#8217;s Political Consultative Conference, a voice from inside the apparatus. In 2019, his book <em>Future School: Redefining Education</em> proposed a structural demolition nobody in the West dares to name. Schools would be replaced by &#8220;learning centres&#8221; without fixed classrooms or unified textbook, without timetables or age cohorts. Teachers would become companions of learning, some going freelance. Verification would centre on a &#8220;credit bank&#8221; recording learning across a lifetime. And the shock formula: the diploma will no longer count. Even in that most radical version, one detail stayed put. The ministry keeps &#8220;the setting of national standards and the organisation of evaluation&#8221;. Schools can dissolve, so long as the state keeps the yardstick.</p><p>In 2023, right after ChatGPT, Zhu republished his programme in <a href="https://xbjk.ecnu.edu.cn/CN/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2023.07.001">the field&#8217;s leading academic journal</a>, in full, but locked down. The article opens with China&#8217;s shortage of graphics processors and closes on national technological self-sufficiency, revised data-security laws, and a list of foreign AI products to authorise on the education market. One sentence has vanished. &#8220;The diploma will no longer count&#8221; isn&#8217;t there any more. The gaokao isn&#8217;t attacked, isn&#8217;t defended. The question has evaporated. The same year, in <a href="https://www.rmlt.com.cn/2023/1011/684777.shtml">a doctrinal text</a>, the derivation of ends starts from Marx and lands at the &#8220;builders and successors of socialism&#8221;. In 2025, in <a href="https://bm.cugb.edu.cn/jsfzzx/upload/resources/file/2026/01/03/298194.pdf">a dialogue published by the same journal</a> with Turing Award laureate John Hopcroft, the learning-centres thesis is nowhere. Zhu defends the irreplaceability of teachers and the perfecting of what already exists, textbooks and teacher training included. It is the USAmerican guest who speaks against entrance examinations. Zhu himself only proposes to abolish the humanities-sciences split within the gaokao, and never touches the exam itself.</p><p>The radical structure of 2019 has not been disowned. It has been wrapped in the language of national security, stripped of its most cutting proposition, and quietly moved off screen. Zhu&#8217;s arc is that of a brilliant thinker who ends up tucking his most original ideas under the carpet of the exam.</p><h2>Moving the yardstick takes a sovereign, and even the sovereign backs off at the exam</h2><p>Alpha changed the process and kept the yardstick because a private operator has no choice: the common yardstick is its only proof. China changed the goals and the measurement because only a state can impose the metric. Moving the yardstick is sovereign work, not entrepreneurial. Yet the sovereign itself, having instrumented the school down to the canteen tray and let the dissolution of the school form get into print, has not touched the gaokao. Its boldest thinker has pulled from his programme the one sentence aimed at it. On both sides of the Pacific, the reset stops in the same place: the exam that turns a school career into a life.</p><p>The yardstick is where school meets society, the point where scarce places get handed out. Pedagogy can be rebuilt without anyone&#8217;s permission. Changing how success is measured, though, means opening up the question of what society promises the measured. Neither Alpha nor China will go there. While they hold back, the measuring instrument is already mutating, quietly: pen stroke by pen stroke, oral by oral, fabrication note by fabrication note. That is what the next episode is about.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xU0G!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf90edeb-0a42-4551-a797-0b544f5c36f6_5004x1338.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xU0G!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf90edeb-0a42-4551-a797-0b544f5c36f6_5004x1338.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xU0G!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf90edeb-0a42-4551-a797-0b544f5c36f6_5004x1338.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xU0G!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf90edeb-0a42-4551-a797-0b544f5c36f6_5004x1338.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xU0G!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf90edeb-0a42-4551-a797-0b544f5c36f6_5004x1338.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xU0G!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf90edeb-0a42-4551-a797-0b544f5c36f6_5004x1338.png" width="1456" height="389" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/af90edeb-0a42-4551-a797-0b544f5c36f6_5004x1338.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:389,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:129590,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Diagram: four stages on a line &#8212; Summit, Yardstick, Proof, Loop. The second, Yardstick, is marked in red: everything changes, except how success is measured.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/208204725?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf90edeb-0a42-4551-a797-0b544f5c36f6_5004x1338.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Diagram: four stages on a line &#8212; Summit, Yardstick, Proof, Loop. The second, Yardstick, is marked in red: everything changes, except how success is measured." title="Diagram: four stages on a line &#8212; Summit, Yardstick, Proof, Loop. The second, Yardstick, is marked in red: everything changes, except how success is measured." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xU0G!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf90edeb-0a42-4551-a797-0b544f5c36f6_5004x1338.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xU0G!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf90edeb-0a42-4551-a797-0b544f5c36f6_5004x1338.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xU0G!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf90edeb-0a42-4551-a797-0b544f5c36f6_5004x1338.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xU0G!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf90edeb-0a42-4551-a797-0b544f5c36f6_5004x1338.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The route of the series: four stations, one question.</figcaption></figure></div><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>All our publications are free and Copyleft. They may be republished, in whole or in part, under following conditions:</strong><br><strong>&#8594; keeping the title and content</strong><br><strong>(text, images, editor&#8217;s or translator&#8217;s notes, boxes)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; crediting the author(s) and/or translator(s)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; inserting a clickable link to the source.</strong><br><strong>Any monetization or commercial use of these publications is prohibited and will be subject to legal action.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Éducation 2/4] Les USA et la Chine remettent l'école à zéro ; l'étalon, lui, ne bouge pas]]></title><description><![CDATA[Au Texas, une &#233;cole priv&#233;e a supprim&#233; les enseignants ; &#224; Hangzhou, l'&#201;tat mesure chaque trait de stylo. Deux remises &#224; z&#233;ro spectaculaires &#8212; et un m&#234;me point d'arr&#234;t : la mesure du succ&#232;s. D&#233;placer l'&#233;talon est une capacit&#233; souveraine, et m&#234;me le souverain s'arr&#234;te au pied du concours.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-24-les-usa-et-la-chine</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-24-les-usa-et-la-chine</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 24 Jul 2026 05:01:42 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mr2O!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/bildung-24-die-usa-und-china-starten">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-24-the-usa-and-china-reset">English</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/educacion-24-los-usa-y-china-ponen">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-24-les-usa-et-la-chine">Fran&#231;ais</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/istruzione-24-gli-usa-e-la-cina-azzerano">Italiano</a></p><p><em>Deux remises &#224; z&#233;ro annonc&#233;es &#224; grand bruit. Un m&#234;me point d&#8217;arr&#234;t, des deux c&#244;t&#233;s : la mesure du succ&#232;s. Deuxi&#232;me volet de la s&#233;rie sur ce que la machine fait &#224; l&#8217;&#233;cole, et sur qui d&#233;cidera de ce qu&#8217;on fait de l&#8217;humain.</em><br></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mr2O!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mr2O!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mr2O!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mr2O!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mr2O!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mr2O!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1017163,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Illustration : une immense r&#232;gle gradu&#233;e verticale au centre ; &#224; gauche, une classe traditionnelle en gris avec enseignant au tableau ; &#224; droite, une classe futuriste o&#249; de petits tuteurs robotiques rouges remplacent l'enseignant. Deux &#233;coles enti&#232;rement diff&#233;rentes, mesur&#233;es contre la m&#234;me r&#232;gle.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207889402?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Illustration : une immense r&#232;gle gradu&#233;e verticale au centre ; &#224; gauche, une classe traditionnelle en gris avec enseignant au tableau ; &#224; droite, une classe futuriste o&#249; de petits tuteurs robotiques rouges remplacent l'enseignant. Deux &#233;coles enti&#232;rement diff&#233;rentes, mesur&#233;es contre la m&#234;me r&#232;gle." title="Illustration : une immense r&#232;gle gradu&#233;e verticale au centre ; &#224; gauche, une classe traditionnelle en gris avec enseignant au tableau ; &#224; droite, une classe futuriste o&#249; de petits tuteurs robotiques rouges remplacent l'enseignant. Deux &#233;coles enti&#232;rement diff&#233;rentes, mesur&#233;es contre la m&#234;me r&#232;gle." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mr2O!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mr2O!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mr2O!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mr2O!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3d4cadb0-cc83-4960-8396-10822850ee17_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Tout oppose ces deux &#233;coles, sauf la mesure du succ&#232;s : le m&#234;me &#233;talon les d&#233;partage.</figcaption></figure></div><h2>Au Texas, l&#8217;&#233;cole sans enseignants se mesure aux tests de l&#8217;&#233;cole d&#8217;avant</h2><p>Alpha School, fond&#233;e &#224; Austin en 2014, tient en une formule commerciale : &#171; 2 Hour Learning &#187;. Deux heures d&#8217;acad&#233;mique par jour, enti&#232;rement dispens&#233;es par des logiciels adaptatifs et des tuteurs IA, au rythme de chaque &#233;l&#232;ve ; le reste de la journ&#233;e en ateliers de comp&#233;tences pratiques : prise de parole, entrepreneuriat, travail en &#233;quipe. Aucun enseignant : des &#171; guides &#187;, qui motivent et encadrent sans transmettre de savoir (chaque &#233;l&#232;ve a droit &#224; trente minutes hebdomadaires en t&#234;te-&#224;-t&#234;te avec le sien). Des frais de scolarit&#233; de 10 000 &#224; 75 000 dollars par an selon les campus (environ 8 700 &#224; 65 600 euros), 40 000 dollars (35 000 euros) au vaisseau amiral d&#8217;Austin. Pr&#232;s d&#8217;une douzaine de nouveaux campus annonc&#233;s pour la rentr&#233;e 2026 en plus de la quinzaine existante, et des revendications en escalade : la marque promet d&#8217;&#171; apprendre deux fois plus en deux heures &#187;, le r&#233;seau affiche des progressions plus de deux fois sup&#233;rieures &#224; la moyenne nationale, et la cofondatrice MacKenzie Price parle d&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ves apprenant &#171; dix fois plus vite &#187; qu&#8217;&#224; l&#8217;&#233;cole traditionnelle.</p><p>L&#8217;ancrage th&#233;orique est ancien et s&#233;rieux : le &#171; probl&#232;me des 2 sigmas &#187; formul&#233; par Benjamin Bloom en 1984, &#224; savoir que l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve moyen suivi en tutorat individuel de ma&#238;trise atteint le niveau des 2 % les meilleurs d&#8217;une classe ordinaire. Le tutorat un-pour-un &#233;tait inabordable &#224; l&#8217;&#233;chelle d&#8217;un syst&#232;me ; la machine le rendrait abordable.</p><p>Cette &#233;cole qui a supprim&#233; l&#8217;enseignant, la classe et l&#8217;emploi du temps prouve sa valeur avec les instruments de l&#8217;&#233;cole qu&#8217;elle pr&#233;tend d&#233;passer : les m&#234;mes programmes, et surtout les m&#234;mes tests standardis&#233;s, puisque c&#8217;est en centiles des &#233;valuations nationales que s&#8217;expriment toutes ses revendications de r&#233;sultats. Le proc&#233;d&#233; a &#233;t&#233; remplac&#233;, l&#8217;objectif et le contr&#244;le qualit&#233; restent intacts. Un op&#233;rateur priv&#233; qui vend &#224; des parents doit faire ses preuves &#224; l&#8217;aune de l&#8217;&#233;talon commun, faute de quoi ses r&#233;sultats ne sont comparables &#224; rien. Ne pouvant pas changer le m&#232;tre, il ne peut que courir plus vite dessus.</p><p>Les r&#233;sultats d&#8217;Alpha reposent sur des donn&#233;es internes, jamais v&#233;rifi&#233;es ind&#233;pendamment, portant sur une population ais&#233;e et auto-s&#233;lectionn&#233;e ; le d&#233;partement de l&#8217;&#201;ducation de Pennsylvanie, examinant une demande d&#8217;&#233;cole sous charte affili&#233;e au r&#233;seau, a qualifi&#233; le mod&#232;le de &#171; non test&#233; &#187; et sans preuve d&#8217;alignement sur les standards acad&#233;miques de l&#8217;&#201;tat ; et l&#8217;&#171; IA &#187; d&#8217;Alpha d&#233;signe pour l&#8217;essentiel, de l&#8217;aveu m&#234;me des fondateurs, des logiciels adaptatifs du type IXL ou Khan Academy, ant&#233;rieurs aux grands mod&#232;les de langage. La vitrine exc&#232;de l&#8217;atelier, constat que le lecteur de cette s&#233;rie conna&#238;t.</p><h2>La voie majoritaire usam&#233;ricaine reste la greffe</h2><p>Alpha est l&#8217;exception spectaculaire d&#8217;un paysage qui a massivement choisi l&#8217;autre route. Selon <a href="https://www.edweek.org/technology/rising-use-of-ai-in-schools-comes-with-big-downsides-for-students/2025/10">l&#8217;enqu&#234;te du Center for Democracy and Technology publi&#233;e en octobre 2025</a>, 85 % des enseignants usam&#233;ricains et 86 % des &#233;l&#232;ves ont utilis&#233; l&#8217;IA dans l&#8217;ann&#233;e scolaire &#233;coul&#233;e, pour pr&#233;parer les cours, corriger, diff&#233;rencier, c&#8217;est-&#224;-dire pour les t&#226;ches existantes de l&#8217;&#233;cole existante ; 55 % des enseignants disent que l&#8217;outil leur a d&#233;gag&#233; du temps d&#8217;interaction directe avec les &#233;l&#232;ves. La greffe &#233;pouse la forme des t&#226;ches enseignantes pour la m&#234;me raison que l&#8217;humano&#239;de d&#8217;usine &#233;pouse la forme de l&#8217;ouvrier : on ne veut pas refaire le b&#226;timent. Le d&#233;bat institutionnel entre les deux routes existe, et il se r&#233;sout par une formule : <a href="https://crpe.org/the-debate-over-ai-in-education-is-stuck-lets-move-it-forward-in-responsible-ways-that-truly-serve-students/">un rapport du Center on Reinventing Public Education</a> appelle les syst&#232;mes scolaires &#224; l&#8217;&#171; ambidextrie &#187;, formule qui dispense de choisir en promettant d&#8217;am&#233;liorer l&#8217;existant d&#8217;une main et de b&#226;tir du neuf de l&#8217;autre.</p><h2>L&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve ne peut pas sortir de l&#8217;atelier : d&#233;l&#233;guer d&#233;truit le produit</h2><p>C&#8217;est ici que l&#8217;analogie industrielle, qui structure cette s&#233;rie, rencontre sa limite (et la limite enseigne davantage que l&#8217;analogie). Dans l&#8217;usine, le produit est indiff&#233;rent &#224; qui le fabrique : quand la machine soude, la soudure tient, et l&#8217;ouvrier peut sortir de l&#8217;atelier. Dans l&#8217;&#233;cole, le &#171; produit &#187; est une transformation de l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve, qui ne peut pas sortir de l&#8217;atelier : on ne peut en retirer que l&#8217;enseignant. Et si la machine fait le travail &#224; la place de l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve, le produit cesse d&#8217;&#234;tre fabriqu&#233;.</p><p>Un grand essai randomis&#233; l&#8217;a document&#233;. Un millier de lyc&#233;ens turcs, en math&#233;matiques, r&#233;partis en trois groupes : sans IA ; avec acc&#232;s brut &#224; GPT-4 ; avec un tuteur fond&#233; sur GPT-4 mais encadr&#233; de garde-fous p&#233;dagogiques. R&#233;sultat, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2422633122">publi&#233; dans les </a><em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2422633122">PNAS</a></em>, la revue de l&#8217;Acad&#233;mie nationale des sciences des USA, sous le titre &#171; l&#8217;IA g&#233;n&#233;rative <em>sans garde-fous</em> peut nuire &#224; l&#8217;apprentissage &#187; : le groupe &#224; acc&#232;s brut r&#233;ussit 48 % mieux les exercices assist&#233;s, puis fait 17 % moins bien que le groupe t&#233;moin &#224; l&#8217;examen pass&#233; sans assistance. Le tuteur encadr&#233;, en revanche, am&#233;liore la performance assist&#233;e sans d&#233;grader l&#8217;examen. La d&#233;l&#233;gation, qui constitue l&#8217;automatisation dans le travail, peut constituer la destruction du produit dans l&#8217;apprentissage : c&#8217;est la diff&#233;rence structurelle entre l&#8217;usine et l&#8217;&#233;cole, &#233;tablie exp&#233;rimentalement. Honn&#234;tet&#233; de m&#233;thode : l&#8217;effet n&#233;gatif est le plus fragile des trois r&#233;sultats de l&#8217;&#233;tude, proche du seuil de d&#233;tection statistique ; il s&#8217;agit d&#8217;un essai, pas d&#8217;une loi. Le contrepoint existe d&#8217;ailleurs, et il est coh&#233;rent avec le m&#234;me m&#233;canisme : <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-97652-6">un essai randomis&#233; &#224; Harvard</a> trouve que des &#233;tudiants apprennent environ deux fois plus, en moins de temps, avec un tuteur IA con&#231;u &#224; cet effet qu&#8217;en cours actif ; <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstreams/cd9cca5b-2ffd-4be1-8313-0f4d2ed6ef4f/download">un pilote de la Banque mondiale au Nigeria</a> mesure, apr&#232;s six semaines de sessions encadr&#233;es par des enseignants, un gain de 0,31 &#233;cart-type sur l&#8217;&#233;valuation finale, et de 0,23 sur l&#8217;anglais seul, l&#8217;objet principal du programme (l&#8217;&#233;cart-type est l&#8217;unit&#233; courante de la recherche &#233;ducative pour la taille des effets ; un gain de cet ordre d&#233;place l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve m&#233;dian du 50e au 62e centile environ, soit, selon les auteurs, l&#8217;&#233;quivalent d&#8217;une ann&#233;e et demie &#224; deux ann&#233;es de scolarit&#233; ordinaire). Tout se joue sur les garde-fous mentionn&#233;s dans le titre des <em>PNAS</em>, autrement dit sur qui contr&#244;le la relation entre l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve et la machine.</p><h2>&#192; Hangzhou, l&#8217;&#201;tat red&#233;finit les objectifs et la mesure ; le concours, lui, demeure</h2><p>Le miroir chinois inverse terme &#224; terme le cas texan. L&#224; o&#249; Alpha remplace le proc&#233;d&#233; en conservant objectifs et v&#233;rification, l&#8217;&#233;cole augment&#233;e chinoise conserve le proc&#233;d&#233; (la classe, le professeur, le cahier subsistent) et change les deux autres variables. Les objectifs sont red&#233;finis d&#8217;en haut : le plan gouvernemental de janvier 2025 &#233;l&#232;ve la r&#233;forme &#233;ducative par l&#8217;IA au rang de strat&#233;gie nationale, avec l&#8217;horizon 2035 d&#8217;une &#233;ducation &#171; parmi les meilleures au monde &#187;, dans un pays qui a vu son nombre d&#8217;&#233;coles fondre de plus d&#8217;un million dans les ann&#233;es 1970 &#224; 470 000 aujourd&#8217;hui. La mesure change de nature : &#224; l&#8217;&#201;cole du futur du lac Xiang, pr&#232;s de Hangzhou (un op&#233;rateur qui g&#232;re plus de trente &#233;tablissements et 60 000 &#233;l&#232;ves), le stylo de l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve capte chaque trait et sa pression, et l&#8217;instrumentation s&#8217;&#233;tend de l&#8217;assiette de cantine au bracelet cardiaque ; nous consacrerons le troisi&#232;me &#233;pisode &#224; cette migration de la preuve vers le processus, car elle d&#233;borde largement la Chine.</p><p>Mais au bout de cette &#233;cole enti&#232;rement remesur&#233;e, le gaokao demeure, intact, seul juge des trajectoires. L&#8217;&#201;tat chinois a d&#233;montr&#233; qu&#8217;il pouvait red&#233;finir ce que l&#8217;&#233;cole doit produire et comment on l&#8217;observe ; il n&#8217;a pas touch&#233; &#224; l&#8217;&#233;preuve qui d&#233;cide de tout. L&#8217;instrumentation la plus radicale du monde d&#233;bouche sur le concours le plus classique du monde, et l&#8217;on peut lire l&#8217;ensemble de deux fa&#231;ons : red&#233;finition r&#233;elle des finalit&#233;s, ou perfectionnement du dressage vers le m&#234;me examen. Les deux lectures coexistent probablement ; les sources disponibles, tr&#232;s favorables au dispositif, ne permettent pas de trancher.</p><h2>Zhu Yongxin, ou la remise &#224; z&#233;ro r&#233;absorb&#233;e : 2019, 2023, 2025</h2><p>Un homme permet de mesurer, sur pi&#232;ces, l&#8217;espace exact de la remise &#224; z&#233;ro en Chine : Zhu Yongxin, figure centrale de la p&#233;dagogie chinoise et vice-secr&#233;taire g&#233;n&#233;ral de la Conf&#233;rence consultative politique, c&#8217;est-&#224;-dire une voix de l&#8217;int&#233;rieur de l&#8217;appareil. En 2019, son livre <em>L&#8217;&#233;cole du futur : red&#233;finir l&#8217;&#233;ducation</em> propose la d&#233;molition structurelle que personne n&#8217;ose en Occident : les &#233;coles remplac&#233;es par des &#171; centres d&#8217;apprentissage &#187; sans salles fixes ni manuel unifi&#233;, sans horaires ni classes d&#8217;&#226;ge ; les enseignants devenus accompagnateurs, une partie passant au statut d&#8217;ind&#233;pendants ; la v&#233;rification refondue autour d&#8217;une &#171; banque de cr&#233;dits &#187; enregistrant les apprentissages &#224; vie ; et la primaut&#233; de la capacit&#233; d&#8217;apprendre sur le dipl&#244;me, formule choc comprise : le dipl&#244;me ne comptera plus. D&#233;j&#224; dans la version la plus radicale, le minist&#232;re conserve pourtant &#171; l&#8217;&#233;tablissement des standards nationaux et l&#8217;organisation de l&#8217;&#233;valuation &#187;. L&#8217;&#233;cole peut se dissoudre &#224; condition que l&#8217;&#233;talon reste d&#8217;&#201;tat.</p><p>En 2023, au lendemain de ChatGPT, Zhu republie int&#233;gralement son programme dans <a href="https://xbjk.ecnu.edu.cn/CN/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2023.07.001">la grande revue acad&#233;mique du champ</a>, mais cette fois dans une forme cadenass&#233;e : l&#8217;article s&#8217;ouvre sur la p&#233;nurie chinoise de processeurs graphiques et se referme sur l&#8217;autosuffisance technologique nationale, la r&#233;vision des lois de s&#233;curit&#233; des donn&#233;es et une liste des produits d&#8217;IA &#233;trangers &#224; autoriser sur le march&#233; &#233;ducatif. Et une phrase a disparu du programme : &#171; le dipl&#244;me ne comptera plus &#187; ne s&#8217;y trouve plus ; il n&#8217;est plus question d&#8217;attaquer ou de d&#233;fendre le gaokao, la question s&#8217;est &#233;vapor&#233;e. La m&#234;me ann&#233;e, dans <a href="https://www.rmlt.com.cn/2023/1011/684777.shtml">un texte de doctrine</a>, la d&#233;rivation des finalit&#233;s part de Marx et aboutit aux &#171; b&#226;tisseurs et successeurs du socialisme &#187;. En 2025 enfin, dans <a href="https://bm.cugb.edu.cn/jsfzzx/upload/resources/file/2026/01/03/298194.pdf">un dialogue publi&#233; par la m&#234;me revue</a> avec le laur&#233;at du prix Turing John Hopcroft, la th&#232;se des centres d&#8217;apprentissage n&#8217;appara&#238;t plus une seule fois. Zhu y d&#233;fend l&#8217;irrempla&#231;abilit&#233; de l&#8217;enseignant et le perfectionnement de l&#8217;existant, manuels et formation des ma&#238;tres compris. C&#8217;est l&#8217;invit&#233; usam&#233;ricain qui porte la voix la plus radicale contre les examens d&#8217;entr&#233;e. Zhu propose seulement de supprimer la s&#233;paration lettres-sciences &#224; l&#8217;int&#233;rieur du gaokao, sans jamais toucher au concours lui-m&#234;me.</p><p>La structure radicale de 2019 n&#8217;a pas &#233;t&#233; reni&#233;e : elle a &#233;t&#233; envelopp&#233;e dans le langage de la s&#233;curit&#233; nationale, amput&#233;e de sa proposition la plus corrosive, puis laiss&#233;e hors champ. La trajectoire de Zhu montre un penseur brillant qui finit par ranger ses id&#233;es les plus originales sous le tapis du concours.</p><h2>D&#233;placer l&#8217;&#233;talon est une capacit&#233; souveraine, mais le souverain s&#8217;arr&#234;te au pied du concours</h2><p>Alpha a chang&#233; le proc&#233;d&#233; et gard&#233; l&#8217;&#233;talon, parce qu&#8217;un op&#233;rateur priv&#233; ne peut pas faire autrement : le m&#232;tre commun est sa seule preuve. La Chine a chang&#233; les objectifs et la mesure, parce que seul un &#201;tat impose la m&#233;trique. D&#233;placer l&#8217;&#233;talon est une capacit&#233; souveraine, pas entrepreneuriale. Mais le souverain lui-m&#234;me, qui a instrument&#233; l&#8217;&#233;cole jusqu&#8217;&#224; l&#8217;assiette de cantine et laiss&#233; publier la dissolution de la forme scolaire, n&#8217;a pas touch&#233; au gaokao ; et son penseur le plus audacieux a retir&#233; de son programme la seule phrase qui le visait. Des deux c&#244;t&#233;s du Pacifique, la remise &#224; z&#233;ro s&#8217;interrompt au m&#234;me endroit : l&#8217;&#233;preuve qui convertit une scolarit&#233; en destin.</p><p>L&#8217;&#233;talon est le point o&#249; l&#8217;&#233;cole rencontre la soci&#233;t&#233;, l&#8217;endroit o&#249; se distribuent les places rares. On peut refonder la p&#233;dagogie sans autorisation. Par contre, modifier la fa&#231;on dont on mesure le succ&#232;s oblige &#224; se poser ouvertement la question de ce que la soci&#233;t&#233; promet aux mesur&#233;s. Ni Alpha ni la Chine ne s&#8217;y risquent. Pendant qu&#8217;ils s&#8217;abstiennent, l&#8217;instrument de mesure mute d&#233;j&#224; en silence, trait de stylo par trait de stylo, oral par oral, note de fabrication par note de fabrication. C&#8217;est l&#8217;objet du prochain &#233;pisode.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xywl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2a9d0a0a-3f13-4264-8ada-aaf90f96945c_5004x1338.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xywl!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2a9d0a0a-3f13-4264-8ada-aaf90f96945c_5004x1338.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xywl!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2a9d0a0a-3f13-4264-8ada-aaf90f96945c_5004x1338.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xywl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2a9d0a0a-3f13-4264-8ada-aaf90f96945c_5004x1338.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xywl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2a9d0a0a-3f13-4264-8ada-aaf90f96945c_5004x1338.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xywl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2a9d0a0a-3f13-4264-8ada-aaf90f96945c_5004x1338.png" width="1456" height="389" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/2a9d0a0a-3f13-4264-8ada-aaf90f96945c_5004x1338.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:389,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:124133,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Sch&#233;ma : quatre &#233;tapes en ligne &#8212; Sommet, &#201;talon, Preuve, Boucle. La deuxi&#232;me, &#201;talon, est marqu&#233;e en rouge : tout change, sauf la mesure du succ&#232;s.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207889402?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2a9d0a0a-3f13-4264-8ada-aaf90f96945c_5004x1338.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Sch&#233;ma : quatre &#233;tapes en ligne &#8212; Sommet, &#201;talon, Preuve, Boucle. La deuxi&#232;me, &#201;talon, est marqu&#233;e en rouge : tout change, sauf la mesure du succ&#232;s." title="Sch&#233;ma : quatre &#233;tapes en ligne &#8212; Sommet, &#201;talon, Preuve, Boucle. La deuxi&#232;me, &#201;talon, est marqu&#233;e en rouge : tout change, sauf la mesure du succ&#232;s." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xywl!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2a9d0a0a-3f13-4264-8ada-aaf90f96945c_5004x1338.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xywl!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2a9d0a0a-3f13-4264-8ada-aaf90f96945c_5004x1338.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xywl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2a9d0a0a-3f13-4264-8ada-aaf90f96945c_5004x1338.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xywl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2a9d0a0a-3f13-4264-8ada-aaf90f96945c_5004x1338.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Le parcours de la s&#233;rie : quatre stations, une question.</figcaption></figure></div><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Toutes nos publications sont gratuites et en Copyleft. Elles peuvent &#234;tre republi&#233;es, int&#233;gralement ou partiellement, aux conditions suivantes :<br>&#8594; respect de l&#8217;intitul&#233; et du contenu<br>(texte, images, notes d&#8217;&#233;diteur ou de traducteur, encadr&#233;s)<br>&#8594;</strong> <strong>indication du ou des auteurs et/ou traducteurs<br>&#8594; lien cliquable vers la source.<br>Toute mon&#233;tisation ou utilisation commerciale de ces publications est exclue et fera l&#8217;objet de poursuites.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Education 1/4] An AI signs as “first author”; the school loses the summit that justified it]]></title><description><![CDATA[In Shanghai, an academic journal supervised by China&#8217;s Ministry of Education is publishing papers whose &#8220;first author&#8221; is an artificial intelligence.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-14-an-ai-signs-as-first</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-14-an-ai-signs-as-first</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 22 Jul 2026 17:01:45 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!u0vd!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffebc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/bildung-14-eine-ki-unterzeichnet">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-14-an-ai-signs-as-first">English </a>- <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/educacion-14-una-ia-firma-como-primer">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-14-lia-signe-en-premier">Fran&#231;ais</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/istruzione-14-unia-firma-come-primo">Italiano</a></p><p><em>The terminal workshop of thought is being automated in its turn. First instalment of a four-part series on what the machine is doing to the school &#8212; and on who will decide what is done with the human.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!u0vd!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffebc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!u0vd!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffebc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!u0vd!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffebc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!u0vd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffebc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!u0vd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffebc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!u0vd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffebc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/febc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1051201,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Illustration: a pyramid built of school desks, books and graduation caps; its summit, a sheet of research paper, has been severed and is held aloft by a red robotic gripper. The educational chain loses the storey that justified it: the production of knowledge is being automated.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/208022724?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffebc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Illustration: a pyramid built of school desks, books and graduation caps; its summit, a sheet of research paper, has been severed and is held aloft by a red robotic gripper. The educational chain loses the storey that justified it: the production of knowledge is being automated." title="Illustration: a pyramid built of school desks, books and graduation caps; its summit, a sheet of research paper, has been severed and is held aloft by a red robotic gripper. The educational chain loses the storey that justified it: the production of knowledge is being automated." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!u0vd!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffebc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!u0vd!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffebc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!u0vd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffebc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!u0vd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffebc76f6-c3af-4f71-9a33-41e99d88bb64_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The summit passes to the machine. Yet every storey of the school pyramid was justified by the one above.</figcaption></figure></div><p>In April 2026, the editorial board of the <em>Journal of East China Normal University</em> (Educational Sciences edition) published a one-page announcement. It comes down to a few words: the journal will publish research papers whose &#8220;first author&#8221; is an artificial intelligence.</p><p>The journal in question sits at the centre of the academic field. Monthly, ranked at the top of China&#8217;s citation indexes, supervised by the Ministry of Education, it is the journal that manufactured, in July 2023, the founding moment of the Chinese debate on AI in education: a sixteen-article ChatGPT special issue, downloaded tens of thousands of times. Three years later, the same editorial board writes that it is time to <a href="https://archive.ph/yVlPs">&#8220;stop the sterile debate over whether to use AI and enter the game resolutely&#8221;</a>. The question of 2023 is declared closed by the very body that had posed it.</p><h2>In Shanghai, 1,177 authors have the machine sign</h2><p>The facts, as the announcement reports them. In September 2025, the university&#8217;s Faculty of Education, the Shanghai Institute of Intelligent Education and ECNU&#8217;s intelligent-education laboratory &#8212; accredited as a Ministry of Education social-science laboratory &#8212; launched what they present as &#8220;the world&#8217;s first large-scale social experiment in AI as first author&#8221; (AI&#19968;&#20316;): a call for research papers with AI as &#8220;first author and creative subject&#8221;, on the themes of future learning, the future classroom, future teachers, future schools and future research. 1,177 authors responded, from all 34 Chinese provincial-level divisions and nine countries, including the USA, the United Kingdom and South Korea. In March 2026, a closing symposium was held in Shanghai; it released a report entitled &#8220;Beyond the Turing Test&#8221; and announced a special issue: the full report, accompanied by five &#8220;pioneering papers of human-machine co-creation&#8221;, selected from ten by the committee. Each paper will appear as a three-part unit &#8212; the text, the committee&#8217;s recommendation, and a note describing the writing process.</p><p>The announcement is a promotional, self-celebrating text (&#8220;world first&#8221;, &#8220;a resounding stress test&#8221;); the figures are the organisers&#8217; own, and the report has not yet appeared. Texts generated entirely by AI systems had, moreover, <a href="https://sakana.ai/ai-scientist-first-publication/">already passed peer review here and there</a>. What the Shanghai announcement establishes is of a different order: a central institution of the Chinese educational field, under ministerial supervision, organises the thing on the scale of the whole country, theorises it (the experiment is explicitly placed in the service of the &#8220;fifth paradigm&#8221; of research and of the &#8220;construction of the autonomous knowledge system&#8221; of Chinese pedagogy), and gives it a publication protocol and a vocabulary &#8212; the symposium&#8217;s workshops were entitled &#8220;from tool to symbiosis&#8221;, &#8220;from contract to co-governance&#8221;, and the text sets the horizon of a &#8220;carbon-silicon symbiosis&#8221; (&#30899;&#30789;&#20849;&#29983;). The direction of the movement is established; how far it has actually advanced remains to be verified &#8212; the observation we applied to <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/two-roads-lead-to-the-workerless">factory robots</a>, whose demonstrations always run ahead of real production rates, holds here without amendment.</p><h2>The &#8220;first author&#8221; is the one who answers for the work; the machine answers for nothing</h2><p>In academic convention, the first-author position designates the person who did the essential part of the work and who answers for it. The signature commits a reputation; it exposes its bearer to retraction, sanction, discredit. It is the mechanism by which the scientific community imputes knowledge to someone.</p><p>An AI can commit nothing of the kind. It has no reputation to lose, cannot be sanctioned, answers for nothing before anyone. Making it sign as first author amounts to testing whether the signature can be decoupled from responsibility &#8212; and the Shanghai experiment tests exactly that, without ever saying so. The publication protocol bears the trace: if every paper must appear flanked by a note on its writing process, it is because the signature no longer suffices to establish the provenance of the work. We shall return to this in the third episode, for this displacement of proof reaches far beyond the laboratory.</p><h2>The school pyramid drew its meaning from its summit; the summit is being automated</h2><p>Why does an event in an educational-sciences journal concern the school as a whole? Because the educational system is a pyramid in which each storey is justified by the storey above. Primary school prepares for secondary school, which prepares for higher education, which prepares for the doctorate, which prepares for the production of new knowledge. Sorting takes place along this chain through mechanisms of different kinds. In China, a single competitive examination, the gaokao. In France, written-and-oral competitive examinations &#8212; the &#201;cole normale sup&#233;rieure, which skims off the future researchers, or the agr&#233;gation, the elite teachers&#8217; examination &#8212; and, upstream, Parcoursup&#8217;s algorithmic file-based matching, which selects, for the most part, without any new test [Author's note, following an exchange with Denis M. The verb <em>selects</em> is to be read in the sense that the algorithm executes the selection produced upstream by the programmes' admissions committees. The algorithm itself is a stable matching and does not rank candidates]. Yet all of them order trajectories by the same yardstick: distance to the summit. The pyramid serves other ends too, vocational training first among them; but its legitimacy flowed down from the summit: research trained those who trained the others, and academic excellence was defined, link by link, by distance to the summit.</p><p>In <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/two-roads-lead-to-the-workerless">our article on the workerless factory</a>, we described a third regime of automation, distinct from the graft and the clean slate: the software that empties offices with neither body nor assembly line, whose milestones go by the names of prospectuses 95 % machine-drafted at Goldman Sachs and shrunken analyst classes at McKinsey. AI&#19968;&#20316; is the limit case of this regime: the laboratory is the terminal workshop, the one in whose name all the other storeys existed. And the machine&#8217;s advantages there are exactly the robot&#8217;s on the line: it works at night, does not tire, iterates without ego, and its cost keeps falling.</p><p>When the summit is automated, the cascade descends. The doctorate loses the outlet that justified it, higher education loses its own, and so on down to the primary classroom. The question &#8220;what is school for&#8221; ceases to be a speculation for philosophers of education: it follows mechanically from the amputation. Nobody chose to pose this question; it now poses itself, and from the top.</p><h2>The factory sends the human out; the laboratory keeps him as guarantor</h2><p>There remains, between the factory and the laboratory, a difference that the Shanghai announcement exposes without meaning to. On the assembly line, when the machine produces, the worker leaves the workshop &#8212; that is the very definition of automation. In the journal, the institution decrees that the human stays. The announcement&#8217;s final sentence affirms it with lyricism: human researchers &#8220;do not leave the stage&#8221;; guided by &#8220;AI for good&#8221;, they remain to &#8220;guard the depth of thought and the radiance of humanity&#8221;.</p><p>The machine produces; the human vouches. The researcher moves from the status of producer to that of guarantor &#8212; lending his capacity to answer to an entity that cannot answer. The arrangement has its coherence, and it recalls <a href="https://xbjk.ecnu.edu.cn/CN/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2023.07.001">a division of labour already theorised in China for the teacher</a>, summoned to cede to the machine his role as master-of-knowledge and fall back on that of master-of-persons. It nonetheless leaves open a question the announcement does not ask: how long does a guarantor who no longer produces keep his post?</p><h2>What this series will establish</h2><p>At each wave of automation, the same promise has been remade: the machine will take the toil, man will keep the thinking. The power loom took the weaver&#8217;s gesture, the tractor the ploughman&#8217;s, office software the copyist&#8217;s &#8212; and each time, the value of the human was moved one storey upward, towards more school, more diplomas, more abstraction. The promise held as long as there was a storey above. AI&#19968;&#20316; signals that there is none left: the work of thought, the terminal refuge, is being automated like the rest. The question <a href="https://glocalworkshop.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/07/Right-to-be-lazy-A5.pdf"><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">Paul Lafargue put to the factory in 1880</span></a><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"> </span>&#8212; what becomes of the hour the machine cuts away, and who captures it &#8212; now poses itself with no way out, and it is on the school that it lands. The series that opens here follows it there.</p><p>The second episode will examine the two loudly announced resets of the school, the USAmerican and the Chinese. In Texas, a network of private schools has removed the teachers and cut academics down to two hours a day; in Hangzhou, a &#8220;school of the future&#8221; instruments its pupils&#8217; every gesture, from the exercise book to the canteen. We will establish the precise point at which each of these refoundations stops &#8212; and show that this point is the same on both sides.</p><p>The third will follow the proof. When the product no longer proves anything, because anyone &#8212; or anything &#8212; may have made it, evaluation moves back towards the process. Three unrelated devices are making this shift at the same moment: a pen that captures the pupil&#8217;s reasoning stroke by stroke, a voice agent that has the student defend his paper, a fabrication note required of the researcher. Three storeys, one and the same migration of proof &#8212; and, on both sides of the world, the new instrument pointed at an old objective.</p><p>The fourth will tie the whole together. A worker paid three dollars an hour teaches the machine; a schoolgirl teaches it for free with every stroke of her pen; at the end of the chain, the machine signs the research in pedagogy. The loop is closed, and a closed loop always belongs to someone. By whom will the human be educated, and to whom will what is made of him belong &#8212; two questions that neither Washington nor Beijing nor Paris poses, while all three are already answering them in deeds.</p><p>The Shanghai announcement swears that the human &#8220;does not leave the stage&#8221;: he stays on it to watch over &#8220;the depth of thought and the radiance of humanity&#8221;. It remains to be established in what role &#8212; and under what contract.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Gb-I!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F51927c55-4c1c-4d58-8022-26581e5623a5_5004x1338.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Gb-I!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F51927c55-4c1c-4d58-8022-26581e5623a5_5004x1338.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Gb-I!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F51927c55-4c1c-4d58-8022-26581e5623a5_5004x1338.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Gb-I!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F51927c55-4c1c-4d58-8022-26581e5623a5_5004x1338.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Gb-I!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F51927c55-4c1c-4d58-8022-26581e5623a5_5004x1338.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Gb-I!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F51927c55-4c1c-4d58-8022-26581e5623a5_5004x1338.png" width="1456" height="389" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/51927c55-4c1c-4d58-8022-26581e5623a5_5004x1338.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:389,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:120409,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Diagram: four stages on a line &#8212; Summit, Yardstick, Proof, Loop. The first, Summit, is marked in red: the summit is being automated.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/208022724?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F51927c55-4c1c-4d58-8022-26581e5623a5_5004x1338.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Diagram: four stages on a line &#8212; Summit, Yardstick, Proof, Loop. The first, Summit, is marked in red: the summit is being automated." title="Diagram: four stages on a line &#8212; Summit, Yardstick, Proof, Loop. The first, Summit, is marked in red: the summit is being automated." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Gb-I!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F51927c55-4c1c-4d58-8022-26581e5623a5_5004x1338.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Gb-I!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F51927c55-4c1c-4d58-8022-26581e5623a5_5004x1338.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Gb-I!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F51927c55-4c1c-4d58-8022-26581e5623a5_5004x1338.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Gb-I!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F51927c55-4c1c-4d58-8022-26581e5623a5_5004x1338.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The route of the series: four stations, one question.</figcaption></figure></div><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>All our publications are free and Copyleft. They may be republished, in whole or in part, under following conditions:</strong><br><strong>&#8594; keeping the title and content</strong><br><strong>(text, images, editor&#8217;s or translator&#8217;s notes, boxes)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; crediting the author(s) and/or translator(s)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; inserting a clickable link to the source.</strong><br><strong>Any monetization or commercial use of these publications is prohibited and will be subject to legal action.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Éducation 1/4] L’IA signe en « premier auteur » et l’école perd le sommet qui la justifiait]]></title><description><![CDATA[Une revue acad&#233;mique chinoise de premier plan publie des articles dont l'IA est le premier auteur. L'atelier terminal de la pens&#233;e s'automatise, et toute la pyramide scolaire perd l'&#233;tage qui la justifiait. Premier volet d'une s&#233;rie en quatre &#233;pisodes.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-14-lia-signe-en-premier</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/education-14-lia-signe-en-premier</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 22 Jul 2026 17:01:44 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9wm3!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/bildung-14-eine-ki-unterzeichnet">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-14-an-ai-signs-as-first">English </a>- <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/educacion-14-una-ia-firma-como-primer">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/education-14-lia-signe-en-premier">Fran&#231;ais</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/istruzione-14-unia-firma-come-primo">Italiano</a></p><p><em>L&#8217;atelier terminal de la pens&#233;e s&#8217;automatise &#224; son tour. Premier volet d&#8217;une s&#233;rie en quatre &#233;pisodes sur ce que la machine fait &#224; l&#8217;&#233;cole &#8212; et sur qui d&#233;cidera de ce qu&#8217;on fait de l&#8217;humain.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9wm3!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9wm3!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9wm3!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9wm3!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9wm3!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9wm3!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1051201,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Illustration : une pyramide faite de pupitres, de livres et de toques universitaires ; son sommet, une feuille de recherche, est sectionn&#233; et tenu en l&#8217;air par une pince robotique rouge. La cha&#238;ne &#233;ducative perd l&#8217;&#233;tage qui la justifiait : la production de savoir s&#8217;automatise.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207843546?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Illustration : une pyramide faite de pupitres, de livres et de toques universitaires ; son sommet, une feuille de recherche, est sectionn&#233; et tenu en l&#8217;air par une pince robotique rouge. La cha&#238;ne &#233;ducative perd l&#8217;&#233;tage qui la justifiait : la production de savoir s&#8217;automatise." title="Illustration : une pyramide faite de pupitres, de livres et de toques universitaires ; son sommet, une feuille de recherche, est sectionn&#233; et tenu en l&#8217;air par une pince robotique rouge. La cha&#238;ne &#233;ducative perd l&#8217;&#233;tage qui la justifiait : la production de savoir s&#8217;automatise." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9wm3!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9wm3!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9wm3!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9wm3!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F268da58b-b5d4-4e7c-bcdc-61ee050a09a8_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Le sommet passe &#224; la machine. Or chaque &#233;tage de la pyramide scolaire se justifiait par l'&#233;tage sup&#233;rieur.</figcaption></figure></div><p>En avril 2026, la r&#233;daction du <em>Journal de l&#8217;Universit&#233; normale de Chine orientale</em> (&#233;dition Sciences de l&#8217;&#233;ducation) publie une annonce d&#8217;une page. Elle tient en peu de mots : la revue va faire para&#238;tre des articles de recherche dont le &#171; premier auteur &#187; est une intelligence artificielle.</p><p>La revue en question occupe le centre du champ acad&#233;mique. Mensuelle, class&#233;e au sommet des index chinois, plac&#233;e sous la tutelle du minist&#232;re de l&#8217;&#201;ducation, c&#8217;est elle qui avait fabriqu&#233;, en juillet 2023, le moment fondateur du d&#233;bat chinois sur l&#8217;IA &#233;ducative : un num&#233;ro sp&#233;cial ChatGPT de seize articles, t&#233;l&#233;charg&#233; par dizaines de milliers. Trois ans plus tard, la m&#234;me r&#233;daction &#233;crit qu&#8217;il faut <a href="https://archive.ph/yVlPs">&#171; cesser le d&#233;bat st&#233;rile sur l&#8217;opportunit&#233; d&#8217;utiliser l&#8217;IA et entrer r&#233;solument dans le jeu &#187;</a>. La question de 2023 est d&#233;clar&#233;e close par l&#8217;instance qui l&#8217;avait pos&#233;e.</p><h2>&#192; Shanghai, 1 177 auteurs font signer la machine</h2><p>Les faits, tels que l&#8217;annonce les rapporte. En septembre 2025, la Facult&#233; d&#8217;&#233;ducation de l&#8217;universit&#233;, l&#8217;Institut d&#8217;&#233;ducation intelligente de Shanghai et le laboratoire d&#8217;&#233;ducation intelligente d&#8217;ECNU &#8212; labellis&#233; laboratoire de sciences sociales du minist&#232;re de l&#8217;&#201;ducation &#8212; lancent ce qu&#8217;ils pr&#233;sentent comme &#171; la premi&#232;re grande exp&#233;rience sociale mondiale de l&#8217;IA premier auteur &#187; (AI&#19968;&#20316;) : un appel &#224; articles de recherche dont l&#8217;IA est &#171; premier auteur et sujet cr&#233;ateur &#187;, sur les th&#232;mes de l&#8217;apprentissage, de la classe, de l&#8217;enseignant, de l&#8217;&#233;cole et de la recherche du futur. 1 177 auteurs r&#233;pondent, depuis les 34 divisions provinciales chinoises et neuf pays, dont les USA, le Royaume-Uni et la Cor&#233;e du Sud. En mars 2026, un colloque de restitution se tient &#224; Shanghai ; il publie un rapport intitul&#233; &#171; Au-del&#224; du test de Turing &#187; et annonce un num&#233;ro sp&#233;cial : le rapport int&#233;gral, accompagn&#233; de cinq &#171; articles pionniers de la co-cr&#233;ation homme-machine &#187;, s&#233;lectionn&#233;s parmi dix par le comit&#233;. Chaque article para&#238;tra en unit&#233; de trois pi&#232;ces &#8212; le texte, la recommandation du comit&#233;, et une note d&#233;crivant le processus d&#8217;&#233;criture.</p><p>Pr&#233;cisons la valeur de la source. L&#8217;annonce est un texte promotionnel, auto-c&#233;l&#233;brant (&#171; premi&#232;re mondiale &#187;, &#171; test de r&#233;sistance retentissant &#187;) ; les chiffres sont ceux des organisateurs et le rapport n&#8217;est pas encore paru. Des textes enti&#232;rement g&#233;n&#233;r&#233;s par des syst&#232;mes d&#8217;IA avaient d&#8217;ailleurs <a href="https://sakana.ai/ai-scientist-first-publication/">d&#233;j&#224; franchi, ici ou l&#224;, l&#8217;&#233;valuation par les pairs</a>. Ce que l&#8217;annonce de Shanghai &#233;tablit rel&#232;ve d&#8217;un autre ordre : une institution centrale du champ &#233;ducatif chinois, sous tutelle minist&#233;rielle, organise la chose &#224; l&#8217;&#233;chelle du pays entier, la th&#233;orise (l&#8217;exp&#233;rience est explicitement mise au service du &#171; cinqui&#232;me paradigme &#187; de la recherche et de la &#171; construction du syst&#232;me de connaissances autonome &#187; de la p&#233;dagogie chinoise), lui donne un protocole de publication et un vocabulaire &#8212; les ateliers du colloque s&#8217;intitulaient &#171; de l&#8217;outil &#224; la symbiose &#187;, &#171; du contrat &#224; la cogouvernance &#187;, et le texte fixe l&#8217;horizon d&#8217;une &#171; symbiose carbone-silicium &#187; (&#30899;&#30789;&#20849;&#29983;). La direction du mouvement est &#233;tablie ; son &#233;tat d&#8217;avancement r&#233;el, lui, reste &#224; v&#233;rifier &#8212; le constat que nous appliquions aux <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/deux-routes-menent-a-lusine-sans">robots d&#8217;usine</a>, dont les d&#233;monstrations pr&#233;c&#232;dent toujours les cadences r&#233;elles, vaut ici sans retouche.</p><h2>Le premier auteur est celui qui r&#233;pond du travail ; la machine ne r&#233;pond de rien</h2><p>Dans les conventions acad&#233;miques, la position de premier auteur d&#233;signe celui qui a fait l&#8217;essentiel du travail et qui en r&#233;pond. La signature engage une r&#233;putation, expose &#224; la r&#233;tractation, &#224; la sanction, au discr&#233;dit. Elle est le m&#233;canisme par lequel la communaut&#233; scientifique impute la connaissance &#224; quelqu&#8217;un.</p><p>Une IA ne peut rien engager de tel. Elle n&#8217;a pas de r&#233;putation &#224; perdre, ne peut &#234;tre sanctionn&#233;e, ne r&#233;pond de rien devant personne. La faire signer en premier auteur revient &#224; tester si la signature peut &#234;tre d&#233;coupl&#233;e de la responsabilit&#233; &#8212; et l&#8217;exp&#233;rience de Shanghai teste pr&#233;cis&#233;ment cela, sans jamais le formuler. Le protocole de publication en porte la trace : si chaque article doit para&#238;tre flanqu&#233; d&#8217;une note sur son processus d&#8217;&#233;criture, c&#8217;est que la signature ne suffit plus &#224; &#233;tablir la provenance du travail. Nous y reviendrons dans le troisi&#232;me &#233;pisode, car ce d&#233;placement de la preuve d&#233;passe largement le laboratoire.</p><h2>La pyramide scolaire tirait son sens de son sommet ; le sommet s&#8217;automatise</h2><p>Pourquoi un &#233;v&#233;nement survenu dans une revue de sciences de l&#8217;&#233;ducation concerne-t-il l&#8217;&#233;cole enti&#232;re ? Parce que le syst&#232;me &#233;ducatif est une pyramide dont chaque &#233;tage se justifie par l&#8217;&#233;tage sup&#233;rieur. L&#8217;&#233;cole primaire pr&#233;pare au secondaire, qui pr&#233;pare au sup&#233;rieur, qui pr&#233;pare au doctorat, qui pr&#233;pare &#224; la production de savoir neuf. Le tri s&#8217;op&#232;re le long de cette cha&#238;ne par des appareils de m&#233;canique diff&#233;rente. En Chine, un concours unique, le gaokao. En France, des concours &#224; &#233;preuves &#233;crites et orales &#8212; Normale Sup, qui &#233;cr&#232;me les futurs chercheurs, ou l&#8217;agr&#233;gation &#8212; et, en amont, l&#8217;appariement algorithmique sur dossier de Parcoursup, qui s&#233;lectionne, pour l&#8217;essentiel, sans &#233;preuve nouvelle [NDA, apr&#232;s &#233;change avec Denis M. : le verbe <em>s&#233;lectionne</em> est &#224; entendre au sens o&#249; l'algorithme op&#232;re la s&#233;lection produite en amont par les commissions des formations ; l'algorithme lui-m&#234;me est un appariement stable et ne classe pas les candidats]. Tous ordonnent pourtant les trajectoires selon le m&#234;me m&#232;tre : la distance au sommet. La pyramide sert aussi d&#8217;autres fins, la formation des m&#233;tiers au premier chef ; mais sa l&#233;gitimit&#233; de sommet en redescendait : la recherche formait ceux qui formaient les autres, et l&#8217;excellence scolaire se d&#233;finissait, de proche en proche, par la distance au sommet.</p><p>Dans <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/deux-routes-menent-a-lusine-sans">notre article sur l&#8217;usine sans ouvriers</a>, nous d&#233;crivions un troisi&#232;me r&#233;gime d&#8217;automatisation, distinct de la greffe et de la table rase : le logiciel qui vide les bureaux sans corps ni cha&#238;ne de montage, dont les jalons s&#8217;appellent prospectus r&#233;dig&#233;s &#224; 95 % par la machine chez Goldman Sachs et promotions d&#8217;analystes r&#233;duites chez McKinsey. L&#8217;AI&#19968;&#20316; est le cas limite de ce r&#233;gime : le laboratoire est l&#8217;atelier terminal, celui au nom duquel tous les autres &#233;tages existaient. Et les avantages de la machine y sont exactement ceux du robot sur la ligne : elle travaille la nuit, ne fatigue pas, it&#232;re sans ego, et son co&#251;t ne cesse de baisser.</p><p>Quand le sommet s&#8217;automatise, la cascade descend. Le doctorat perd son d&#233;bouch&#233; de justification, le sup&#233;rieur perd le sien, et ainsi de suite jusqu&#8217;&#224; la classe de primaire. La question &#171; &#224; quoi sert l&#8217;&#233;cole &#187; cesse d&#8217;&#234;tre une sp&#233;culation de philosophe de l&#8217;&#233;ducation : elle d&#233;coule m&#233;caniquement de l&#8217;amputation. Personne n&#8217;a choisi de poser cette question ; elle se pose d&#233;sormais d&#8217;elle-m&#234;me, et par le haut.</p><h2>L&#8217;usine fait sortir l&#8217;humain ; le laboratoire le garde en caution</h2><p>Il reste, entre l&#8217;usine et le laboratoire, une diff&#233;rence que l&#8217;annonce de Shanghai expose sans le vouloir. Sur la ligne de montage, quand la machine produit, l&#8217;ouvrier sort de l&#8217;atelier &#8212; c&#8217;est la d&#233;finition m&#234;me de l&#8217;automatisation. Dans la revue, l&#8217;institution d&#233;cr&#232;te que l&#8217;humain reste. La derni&#232;re phrase de l&#8217;annonce l&#8217;affirme avec lyrisme : les chercheurs humains &#171; ne quittent pas la sc&#232;ne &#187; ; guid&#233;s par &#171; l&#8217;IA au service du bien &#187;, ils demeurent pour &#171; prot&#233;ger la profondeur de la pens&#233;e et l&#8217;&#233;clat de l&#8217;humanit&#233; &#187;.</p><p>La machine produit, l&#8217;humain garantit. Le chercheur passe du statut de producteur &#224; celui de caution &#8212; il pr&#234;te sa capacit&#233; de r&#233;pondre &#224; une entit&#233; qui ne peut pas r&#233;pondre. L&#8217;arrangement a sa coh&#233;rence, et il rappelle <a href="https://xbjk.ecnu.edu.cn/CN/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2023.07.001">un partage d&#233;j&#224; th&#233;oris&#233; en Chine pour l&#8217;enseignant</a>, somm&#233; de c&#233;der &#224; la machine son r&#244;le de ma&#238;tre-de-savoir pour se replier sur celui de ma&#238;tre-de-personne. Il laisse pourtant une question ouverte, que l&#8217;annonce ne pose pas : combien de temps une caution qui ne produit plus conserve-t-elle son poste ?</p><h2>Ce que cette s&#233;rie va &#233;tablir</h2><p>&#192; chaque vague d&#8217;automatisation, la m&#234;me promesse a &#233;t&#233; refaite : la machine prendra la peine, l&#8217;homme gardera la pens&#233;e. Le m&#233;tier m&#233;canique a pris le geste du tisserand, le tracteur celui du laboureur, la bureautique celui du copiste &#8212; et chaque fois, la valeur de l&#8217;humain a &#233;t&#233; d&#233;plac&#233;e d&#8217;un &#233;tage vers le haut, vers plus d&#8217;&#233;cole, plus de dipl&#244;me, plus d&#8217;abstraction. La promesse tenait tant qu&#8217;il restait un &#233;tage au-dessus. L&#8217;AI&#19968;&#20316; signale qu&#8217;il n&#8217;en reste plus : le travail de la pens&#233;e, refuge terminal, s&#8217;automatise comme les autres. La question que <a href="https://glocalworkshop.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/07/Droit-paresse-A5.pdf"><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">Paul Lafargue posait &#224; l&#8217;usine en 1880 </span></a>&#8212; que devient l&#8217;heure que la machine retranche, et qui la capte &#8212; se pose d&#233;sormais sans &#233;chappatoire, et c&#8217;est &#224; l&#8217;&#233;cole qu&#8217;elle atterrit. La s&#233;rie qui s&#8217;ouvre l&#8217;y suit.</p><p>Le deuxi&#232;me &#233;pisode examinera les deux remises &#224; z&#233;ro de l&#8217;&#233;cole annonc&#233;es &#224; grand bruit, l&#8217;usam&#233;ricaine et la chinoise. Au Texas, un r&#233;seau d&#8217;&#233;coles priv&#233;es a supprim&#233; les enseignants et ramen&#233; l&#8217;acad&#233;mique &#224; deux heures par jour ; &#224; Hangzhou, une &#171; &#233;cole du futur &#187; instrumente chaque geste de ses &#233;l&#232;ves, du cahier &#224; la cantine. Nous &#233;tablirons le point pr&#233;cis o&#249; chacune de ces refondations s&#8217;arr&#234;te &#8212; et montrerons que ce point est le m&#234;me des deux c&#244;t&#233;s.</p><p>Le troisi&#232;me suivra la preuve. Quand le produit ne prouve plus rien, parce que n&#8217;importe qui &#8212; ou n&#8217;importe quoi &#8212; peut l&#8217;avoir fabriqu&#233;, l&#8217;&#233;valuation remonte vers le processus. Trois dispositifs sans lien entre eux font ce d&#233;placement au m&#234;me moment : un stylo qui capte le raisonnement de l&#8217;&#233;l&#232;ve trait par trait, un agent vocal qui fait soutenir sa copie &#224; l&#8217;&#233;tudiant, une note de fabrication exig&#233;e du chercheur. Trois &#233;tages, une m&#234;me migration de la preuve &#8212; et, des deux c&#244;t&#233;s du monde, l&#8217;instrument nouveau point&#233; vers un objectif ancien.</p><p>Le quatri&#232;me nouera l&#8217;ensemble. Une ouvri&#232;re pay&#233;e trois dollars (environ 2,60 euros) de l&#8217;heure &#233;duque la machine ; une coll&#233;gienne l&#8217;&#233;duque gratuitement &#224; chaque trait de stylo ; au bout de la cha&#238;ne, la machine signe la recherche en p&#233;dagogie. La boucle est ferm&#233;e, et une boucle ferm&#233;e appartient toujours &#224; quelqu&#8217;un. Par qui l&#8217;humain sera-t-il &#233;duqu&#233;, et &#224; qui appartiendra ce qu&#8217;on fait de lui &#8212; deux questions que ni Washington, ni P&#233;kin, ni Paris ne posent, tout en y r&#233;pondant d&#233;j&#224; en actes.</p><p>L&#8217;annonce de Shanghai jure que l&#8217;humain &#171; ne quitte pas la sc&#232;ne &#187; : il y reste pour veiller sur &#171; la profondeur de la pens&#233;e et l&#8217;&#233;clat de l&#8217;humanit&#233; &#187;. Reste &#224; &#233;tablir dans quel r&#244;le, et sous quel contrat.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGZa!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F99118bcb-5bf3-4e26-a83b-394194f7a380_5004x1338.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGZa!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F99118bcb-5bf3-4e26-a83b-394194f7a380_5004x1338.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGZa!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F99118bcb-5bf3-4e26-a83b-394194f7a380_5004x1338.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGZa!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F99118bcb-5bf3-4e26-a83b-394194f7a380_5004x1338.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGZa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F99118bcb-5bf3-4e26-a83b-394194f7a380_5004x1338.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGZa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F99118bcb-5bf3-4e26-a83b-394194f7a380_5004x1338.png" width="1456" height="389" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/99118bcb-5bf3-4e26-a83b-394194f7a380_5004x1338.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:389,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:116776,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Sch&#233;ma : quatre &#233;tapes reli&#233;es en ligne &#8212; Sommet, &#201;talon, Preuve, Boucle. La premi&#232;re, Sommet, est marqu&#233;e en rouge : le sommet s'automatise.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207843546?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F99118bcb-5bf3-4e26-a83b-394194f7a380_5004x1338.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Sch&#233;ma : quatre &#233;tapes reli&#233;es en ligne &#8212; Sommet, &#201;talon, Preuve, Boucle. La premi&#232;re, Sommet, est marqu&#233;e en rouge : le sommet s'automatise." title="Sch&#233;ma : quatre &#233;tapes reli&#233;es en ligne &#8212; Sommet, &#201;talon, Preuve, Boucle. La premi&#232;re, Sommet, est marqu&#233;e en rouge : le sommet s'automatise." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGZa!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F99118bcb-5bf3-4e26-a83b-394194f7a380_5004x1338.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGZa!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F99118bcb-5bf3-4e26-a83b-394194f7a380_5004x1338.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGZa!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F99118bcb-5bf3-4e26-a83b-394194f7a380_5004x1338.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGZa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F99118bcb-5bf3-4e26-a83b-394194f7a380_5004x1338.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Le parcours de la s&#233;rie : quatre stations, une question.</figcaption></figure></div><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Toutes nos publications sont gratuites et en Copyleft. Elles peuvent &#234;tre republi&#233;es, int&#233;gralement ou partiellement, aux conditions suivantes :<br>&#8594; respect de l&#8217;intitul&#233; et du contenu<br>(texte, images, notes d&#8217;&#233;diteur ou de traducteur, encadr&#233;s)<br>&#8594;</strong> <strong>indication du ou des auteurs et/ou traducteurs<br>&#8594; lien cliquable vers la source.<br>Toute mon&#233;tisation ou utilisation commerciale de ces publications est exclue et fera l&#8217;objet de poursuites.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Two roads lead to the workerless factory; the West took the costlier one]]></title><description><![CDATA[Whether the human leaves the shop floor or the office, what becomes of them next &#8212; free time or unemployment &#8212; depends on who captures the gain.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/two-roads-lead-to-the-workerless</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/two-roads-lead-to-the-workerless</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 19 Jul 2026 18:01:17 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p><strong><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/zwei-wege-fuhren-zur-fabrik-ohne">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/207667637">English</a> - <a href="https://faustotounsi.substack.com/publish/post/207669561">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/207643900">Fran&#231;ais</a><span>- </span><a href="https://faustotounsi.substack.com/publish/post/207760542"><span>Italiano</span></a></strong></p></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2358815,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Photograph at dusk. At the centre, a large industrial complex whose windows are going dark. A road forks. On the left, an old brick factory built to human scale, where a white humanoid robot with a red panel on its chest walks up toward a lit doorway. On the right, a modern glass hall bathed in cold light, filled with rows of robotic arms and no workers. In the foreground, seen from behind, a worker in blue overalls leaves the site, a bag in hand.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207643900?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Photograph at dusk. At the centre, a large industrial complex whose windows are going dark. A road forks. On the left, an old brick factory built to human scale, where a white humanoid robot with a red panel on its chest walks up toward a lit doorway. On the right, a modern glass hall bathed in cold light, filled with rows of robotic arms and no workers. In the foreground, seen from behind, a worker in blue overalls leaves the site, a bag in hand." title="Photograph at dusk. At the centre, a large industrial complex whose windows are going dark. A road forks. On the left, an old brick factory built to human scale, where a white humanoid robot with a red panel on its chest walks up toward a lit doorway. On the right, a modern glass hall bathed in cold light, filled with rows of robotic arms and no workers. In the foreground, seen from behind, a worker in blue overalls leaves the site, a bag in hand." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Two ways to take the human out of the factory: on the left, a humanoid robot slipped into the old workshop; on the right, a hall designed for machines. In the middle, the worker walks away.</figcaption></figure></div><p>In Shandong, a province in eastern China, a woman in her fifties, a stay-at-home mother, films herself six hours a day folding laundry, pouring water, opening drawers. Gao Bo earns about twenty yuan an hour, roughly three dollars, to produce the gesture data used to train humanoid robots. JD.com, one of China&#8217;s e-commerce giants, says it wants to enlist up to 500,000 people like her; US firms outsource the same collection abroad. Alan Fern, a robotics researcher at Oregon State University, calls the method &#8220;very unproven.&#8221; The race does not stop for so little.</p><p>Gao Bo&#8217;s body is a raw material. What she makes will not go to a factory: the humanoids she trains are meant for spaces built for humans, a home, a shop, a cluttered warehouse, where a supple gesture is needed rather than a fixed line. That is already a clue. Taking the human out of work does not everywhere follow the same path, and confusing those paths distorts the reasoning. There are at least three. Public debate treats two as one and overlooks the third.</p><h2>The factory built for human bodies admits only the human-shaped robot</h2><p>An existing factory was drawn around the worker: bench height, bin size, tool grip, aisle width, everything is set to a body. To automate it without rebuilding, a machine shaped like the one it replaces is slipped in. The humanoid form has no other reason to exist: it fits a human environment no one wants to redo.</p><p>This is the regime documented by BMW&#8217;s pilot in Spartanburg, South Carolina. The Figure 02 robot loaded more than 90,000 sheet-metal parts there over 1,250 hours, with a placement rate above 99% and a steady cycle time, contributing to the production of more than 30,000 X3s. In May, then June 2026, BMW moved to the commercial deployment of the next model, Figure 03: a fleet of about 40 units on body and assembly stations, billed at around $25 per robot-hour, which Figure presents as the first paying humanoid contract at industrial scale, with extensions announced to the German sites of Munich, Regensburg and Leipzig. Hyundai follows the same road, further still: more than 25,000 Atlas robots planned across its plants, parts sequencing from 2028, full assembly targeted for 2030, with the stated aim of a line running lights-out.</p><p>This is the only one of the three regimes where comparing the worker&#8217;s gesture with the robot&#8217;s makes sense, because a human station stands opposite the automated one. A parity can therefore be figured, provided it is not overstated. A Western unit costs $90,000 to $100,000 today, according to Bank of America; its Chinese bill of materials comes closer to 35,000, and BofA projects it below $17,000 by 2030, a fall of about 13% a year. Goldman Sachs had measured a 40% drop in manufacturing costs between 2023 and 2024, a one-off not to be mistaken for a recurring rate. Per hour, the Spartanburg contract, about $25 per robot-hour, puts the robot below the cost of a US autoworker, paid $50 to $70, or of a German manufacturing worker, at about &#8364;49.50 an hour in the first quarter of 2026.</p><p>This comparison flatters the robot. It assumes the robot does a worker&#8217;s full job, which it is still far from. 2026 humanoids handle 60 to 80% of tasks in structured settings, but only 20 to 40% in a complex factory; and a Stanford study finds that robots succeeding at nearly 90% of a task in simulation succeed at just 12% under real conditions. BMW itself puts at 15% the line-efficiency gain where Figure 02 works alongside workers, not in their place. The $25 figure is, moreover, a showcase price, negotiated on a strategic contract, not a settled market rate. Corrected for what the robot actually accomplishes, its cost per unit of work meets the worker&#8217;s, or exceeds it.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rqWF!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F21d74451-2322-4589-96d6-677d361ce2d1_2000x1020.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rqWF!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F21d74451-2322-4589-96d6-677d361ce2d1_2000x1020.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rqWF!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F21d74451-2322-4589-96d6-677d361ce2d1_2000x1020.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rqWF!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F21d74451-2322-4589-96d6-677d361ce2d1_2000x1020.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rqWF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F21d74451-2322-4589-96d6-677d361ce2d1_2000x1020.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rqWF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F21d74451-2322-4589-96d6-677d361ce2d1_2000x1020.png" width="1456" height="743" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/21d74451-2322-4589-96d6-677d361ce2d1_2000x1020.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:743,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:148337,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;[Horizontal bar chart comparing the hourly cost in a German car plant. The robot at its headline rate comes to about 23 euros an hour, that is 25 dollars per robot-hour for a Figure 03 deployed at BMW. The loaded worker costs about 50 euros an hour, per Eurostat 2026. A third bar, presented as an uncertain scenario, shows that corrected for what the robot really does, its cost per unit of work meets or exceeds the worker's: the humanoid covers only 20 to 40% of tasks in a complex factory, and succeeds at about 90% of tasks in simulation versus 12% under real conditions.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207667637?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F21d74451-2322-4589-96d6-677d361ce2d1_2000x1020.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="[Horizontal bar chart comparing the hourly cost in a German car plant. The robot at its headline rate comes to about 23 euros an hour, that is 25 dollars per robot-hour for a Figure 03 deployed at BMW. The loaded worker costs about 50 euros an hour, per Eurostat 2026. A third bar, presented as an uncertain scenario, shows that corrected for what the robot really does, its cost per unit of work meets or exceeds the worker's: the humanoid covers only 20 to 40% of tasks in a complex factory, and succeeds at about 90% of tasks in simulation versus 12% under real conditions." title="[Horizontal bar chart comparing the hourly cost in a German car plant. The robot at its headline rate comes to about 23 euros an hour, that is 25 dollars per robot-hour for a Figure 03 deployed at BMW. The loaded worker costs about 50 euros an hour, per Eurostat 2026. A third bar, presented as an uncertain scenario, shows that corrected for what the robot really does, its cost per unit of work meets or exceeds the worker's: the humanoid covers only 20 to 40% of tasks in a complex factory, and succeeds at about 90% of tasks in simulation versus 12% under real conditions." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rqWF!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F21d74451-2322-4589-96d6-677d361ce2d1_2000x1020.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rqWF!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F21d74451-2322-4589-96d6-677d361ce2d1_2000x1020.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rqWF!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F21d74451-2322-4589-96d6-677d361ce2d1_2000x1020.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rqWF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F21d74451-2322-4589-96d6-677d361ce2d1_2000x1020.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Hourly cost compared in a German car plant. At the headline rate the robot looks half as expensive as the worker; corrected for what it really does, its cost per unit of work meets or exceeds the human&#8217;s.</figcaption></figure></div><p>The robot&#8217;s advantage lies in what surrounds the gesture. It runs at night, on weekends, across successive shifts, and its purchase price keeps falling. It does not unionise, does not strike, does not take leave. These advantages are of a different order than productivity: they belong to the social relation, and benefit whoever owns the machine.</p><h2>The factory designed for machines has no human station to replace</h2><p>The other road draws the workshop around the machines from the drawing board, and the worker does not appear in it. No humanoid: fixed arms, machine vision, software orchestration. This is the model China first tried in electronics. Xiaomi&#8217;s Changping plant in Beijing, opened in 2024, produces up to ten million smartphones a year, run end to end by an in-house system, with no staff on the line and no lights. Xiaomi advertises one phone per second; set against the announced volume, the real rate is closer to one every three seconds.</p><p>The same principle has reached the car. In Ningbo, the &#8220;intelligent&#8221; plant of Zeekr, Geely&#8217;s premium brand, lines up more than 800 robots in its welding shop alone and produces about 800 electric cars a day, close to 300,000 a year, on a site designed as one piece in three years. Its vice-president claims production &#8220;almost entirely&#8221; without lights. Almost: the Wall Street Journal notes that the intricate wiring remains manual, and that technicians still come in to maintain the robots. Xiaomi&#8217;s electric-vehicle plant in Beijing posts a 91% automation rate, with some lines such as casting fully robotised.</p><p>Here the price of a humanoid is beside the point, since there is no humanoid and no human station facing it. The right measure is the whole line against the whole line: capital tied up, throughput, scrap rate, output per square metre. Two gestures are no longer compared; two processes are.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Pmmo!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc37387f6-ed02-4fe2-aba3-08d83c6dcaf2_1500x500.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Pmmo!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc37387f6-ed02-4fe2-aba3-08d83c6dcaf2_1500x500.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Pmmo!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc37387f6-ed02-4fe2-aba3-08d83c6dcaf2_1500x500.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Pmmo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc37387f6-ed02-4fe2-aba3-08d83c6dcaf2_1500x500.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Pmmo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc37387f6-ed02-4fe2-aba3-08d83c6dcaf2_1500x500.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Pmmo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc37387f6-ed02-4fe2-aba3-08d83c6dcaf2_1500x500.png" width="1456" height="485" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c37387f6-ed02-4fe2-aba3-08d83c6dcaf2_1500x500.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:485,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:16002,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;[Diagram. On the right, a large hall (grey frame) contains a red robotic assembly line, made of fixed arms and a conveyor, with no humanoid. On the left, outside the hall, a faded grey human silhouette, captioned \&quot;no one to replace.\&quot; Overall caption: no human station to replace. The factory designed for machines has no human station for a robot to take over.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207667637?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc37387f6-ed02-4fe2-aba3-08d83c6dcaf2_1500x500.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="[Diagram. On the right, a large hall (grey frame) contains a red robotic assembly line, made of fixed arms and a conveyor, with no humanoid. On the left, outside the hall, a faded grey human silhouette, captioned &quot;no one to replace.&quot; Overall caption: no human station to replace. The factory designed for machines has no human station for a robot to take over." title="[Diagram. On the right, a large hall (grey frame) contains a red robotic assembly line, made of fixed arms and a conveyor, with no humanoid. On the left, outside the hall, a faded grey human silhouette, captioned &quot;no one to replace.&quot; Overall caption: no human station to replace. The factory designed for machines has no human station for a robot to take over." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Pmmo!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc37387f6-ed02-4fe2-aba3-08d83c6dcaf2_1500x500.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Pmmo!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc37387f6-ed02-4fe2-aba3-08d83c6dcaf2_1500x500.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Pmmo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc37387f6-ed02-4fe2-aba3-08d83c6dcaf2_1500x500.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Pmmo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc37387f6-ed02-4fe2-aba3-08d83c6dcaf2_1500x500.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The factory designed for machines: a line conceived with no human station. There is no one to replace, only processes to compare from one line to the next.</figcaption></figure></div><h2>The West automates its old world with the new world&#8217;s tool</h2><p>The decisive gap lies between the two roads. The West modernises what exists because it drags a stock of plants and workforces built for human bodies. Razing and rebuilding China-style would cost capital it will not commit, financial but human too: the accumulated know-how, the employment basins, the social contracts tied around each site. So it slips the humanoid into the old shell. China built its recent lines on new ground, where no workforce had to be displaced on site; it did not spare that human cost, it shifted it into the aggregate. Its manufacturing workforce fell from 115 million in 2013 to under 85 million in 2025, a loss of more than thirty million jobs according to Bloomberg, its exports hitting records over the same span.</p><p>The edge comes from the tool. The humanoid carrying out this Western modernisation is, in the main, Chinese. Unitree&#8217;s G1 sells for around $16,000 while the Western unit costs six times more; Unitree delivered more than 5,500 robots in 2025, AgiBot about 5,000 per TrendForce, and BYD equips at the latter. The categories are not homogeneous, a full humanoid is not a mobile arm, and these volumes should not be over-read; but the direction is clear. When the West takes the human out of its old workshop, it buys in Hangzhou the machine that replaces them. The product, then the tool, then the data: this is the mechanism this <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/the-byd-ization">series</a> has named from the start, and Gao Bo occupies its third floor.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6MxU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b9e9ff6-f745-4c93-a908-424dc1da75fc_1600x587.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6MxU!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b9e9ff6-f745-4c93-a908-424dc1da75fc_1600x587.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6MxU!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b9e9ff6-f745-4c93-a908-424dc1da75fc_1600x587.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6MxU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b9e9ff6-f745-4c93-a908-424dc1da75fc_1600x587.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6MxU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b9e9ff6-f745-4c93-a908-424dc1da75fc_1600x587.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6MxU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b9e9ff6-f745-4c93-a908-424dc1da75fc_1600x587.png" width="1456" height="534" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4b9e9ff6-f745-4c93-a908-424dc1da75fc_1600x587.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:534,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:30919,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;[Diagram. At the centre, a factory with black windows, lights out. Two roads lead to it. On the left, on a grey road, a red humanoid robot walks toward the factory: modernising what exists, a robot slipped into the old plant. On the right, on a red road, a red robotic assembly line, with no humanoid: the factory designed for machines. Red marks the Chinese origin of the tool in both cases. In the foreground, a small grey human silhouette leaves the factory.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207667637?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b9e9ff6-f745-4c93-a908-424dc1da75fc_1600x587.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="[Diagram. At the centre, a factory with black windows, lights out. Two roads lead to it. On the left, on a grey road, a red humanoid robot walks toward the factory: modernising what exists, a robot slipped into the old plant. On the right, on a red road, a red robotic assembly line, with no humanoid: the factory designed for machines. Red marks the Chinese origin of the tool in both cases. In the foreground, a small grey human silhouette leaves the factory." title="[Diagram. At the centre, a factory with black windows, lights out. Two roads lead to it. On the left, on a grey road, a red humanoid robot walks toward the factory: modernising what exists, a robot slipped into the old plant. On the right, on a red road, a red robotic assembly line, with no humanoid: the factory designed for machines. Red marks the Chinese origin of the tool in both cases. In the foreground, a small grey human silhouette leaves the factory." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6MxU!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b9e9ff6-f745-4c93-a908-424dc1da75fc_1600x587.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6MxU!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b9e9ff6-f745-4c93-a908-424dc1da75fc_1600x587.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6MxU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b9e9ff6-f745-4c93-a908-424dc1da75fc_1600x587.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6MxU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b9e9ff6-f745-4c93-a908-424dc1da75fc_1600x587.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The two roads to the workerless factory. On the left, a humanoid slipped into the old workshop; on the right, a line designed for machines. In red, the Chinese tool, present on both sides.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Hyundai crystallises the misunderstanding. We showed in the <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/korea-24-metaplant-yesterdays-showcase">second part of our Korea dossier</a> that its Atlas project reads as a late replica of the Chinese lights-out model. The map of the two roads makes it precise: it is not even a faithful replica, since the Chinese dark factory employs no humanoids. Hyundai aims at the same result, the lights-out shop, but by the humanoid road and on existing sites, to reach a point China reached by the other path. The whole Western debate over the price of the humanoid, over the hour at which it becomes cheaper than a worker, is held inside the costlier road. It measures with care a contest that is not the one that decides.</p><h2>The third workshop has neither body nor line</h2><p>There remains the regime the factory debate forgets, because it resembles no factory. Software empties the office. No body, no physical line: a large language model performs tasks that once occupied white-collar staff. Goldman Sachs boss David Solomon claims an in-house tool now drafts 95% of an IPO prospectus, a document that once mobilised whole teams. Morgan Stanley puts at 200,000 the number of European banking jobs threatened by 2030. McKinsey is cutting its junior-analyst intakes by up to two-thirds. Analysts are not the only ones exposed: coding assistants target IT staff, in banking and beyond, and the threat reaches well past finance.</p><p>Caution is in order on this front, for the share of theatre is real: several US banks are freezing hiring more than cutting, and the announced reductions are not all pinned on AI by those who decide them. When a bank explicitly links an attrition-driven headcount fall to its AI tools, the link is established; when it restructures broadly without putting it that way, pinning it on the machine is interpretation, sometimes pretext, AI serving as a handy justification for cuts decided for other reasons. The trend is there nonetheless, and it takes the human out of work by a road that has neither gesture nor chain.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LWBB!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F804fa47d-c90e-44eb-9752-8633b1a68430_1500x425.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LWBB!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F804fa47d-c90e-44eb-9752-8633b1a68430_1500x425.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LWBB!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F804fa47d-c90e-44eb-9752-8633b1a68430_1500x425.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LWBB!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F804fa47d-c90e-44eb-9752-8633b1a68430_1500x425.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LWBB!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F804fa47d-c90e-44eb-9752-8633b1a68430_1500x425.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LWBB!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F804fa47d-c90e-44eb-9752-8633b1a68430_1500x425.png" width="1456" height="413" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/804fa47d-c90e-44eb-9752-8633b1a68430_1500x425.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:413,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:26717,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;[Diagram in black and grey. Three icons. A humanoid robot struck through, captioned \&quot;no body.\&quot; A conveyor struck through, captioned \&quot;no line.\&quot; A desk with a screen showing text and an empty chair, captioned \&quot;the software.\&quot; Overall caption: the software empties the office. The third automation regime has neither robot nor physical chain; software removes the office jobs.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207667637?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F804fa47d-c90e-44eb-9752-8633b1a68430_1500x425.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="[Diagram in black and grey. Three icons. A humanoid robot struck through, captioned &quot;no body.&quot; A conveyor struck through, captioned &quot;no line.&quot; A desk with a screen showing text and an empty chair, captioned &quot;the software.&quot; Overall caption: the software empties the office. The third automation regime has neither robot nor physical chain; software removes the office jobs." title="[Diagram in black and grey. Three icons. A humanoid robot struck through, captioned &quot;no body.&quot; A conveyor struck through, captioned &quot;no line.&quot; A desk with a screen showing text and an empty chair, captioned &quot;the software.&quot; Overall caption: the software empties the office. The third automation regime has neither robot nor physical chain; software removes the office jobs." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LWBB!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F804fa47d-c90e-44eb-9752-8633b1a68430_1500x425.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LWBB!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F804fa47d-c90e-44eb-9752-8633b1a68430_1500x425.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LWBB!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F804fa47d-c90e-44eb-9752-8633b1a68430_1500x425.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LWBB!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F804fa47d-c90e-44eb-9752-8633b1a68430_1500x425.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The third workshop has neither body nor line: no robot, no conveyor. Software alone empties the office.</figcaption></figure></div><h2>In all three workshops the human leaves; what awaits outside is not decided in the workshop</h2><p>The three regimes share one result: output held, or raised, with far fewer hours of human work. What the removed hour becomes, free time or unemployment, the machine does not say. It depends on who captures the productivity gain. A gain pocketed through margins and layoffs shrinks purchasing power; a gain shared, as reduced time at maintained income, sustains it. Sharing is therefore not only a matter of justice; it decides whether the system feeds or chokes itself.</p><p>Paul Lafargue wrote it a hundred and forty years ago, in <em>The Right to Be Lazy</em>: &#8220;our machines with breath of fire&#8221; promised leisure and freedom. The machines arrived; leisure did not follow of itself. The promise was not false, it was conditional, and the condition was never technical.</p><p>To say the West took the costlier road speaks only of money. Socially, the two roads meet: both take the worker off the shop floor, here by replacing them station by station, there by designing the factory without them. The human cost is measured elsewhere than in the price of the robot, in what society makes of the hours and the people the machine frees.</p><p>A reader put to us, <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/korea-24-metaplant-yesterdays-showcase/comments">in a comment on our Metaplant article</a>, the old under-consumption objection: if automation takes the human out everywhere, who is left to sell to? So far, at each wave &#8212; the mechanical loom, the tractor, office software &#8212;, demand has reappeared elsewhere, falling costs freeing purchasing power for new activities, with no guarantee it benefits those it displaces, that it returns to the same place, or fast enough. Whether demand holds this time depends on one thing: that the machine&#8217;s gains return to those it replaces, as wages and free time, rather than being captured. The question deserves an article of its own, which we may write.</p><p>Gao Bo, for her part, trains for three dollars an hour a machine that will work where she herself cannot follow it. The productivity she helps make will belong to someone. The three workshops leave open the only question that counts: to whom.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Hweq!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40782a9d-3111-4bd6-99d2-0c0a43901de4_1600x427.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Hweq!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40782a9d-3111-4bd6-99d2-0c0a43901de4_1600x427.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Hweq!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40782a9d-3111-4bd6-99d2-0c0a43901de4_1600x427.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Hweq!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40782a9d-3111-4bd6-99d2-0c0a43901de4_1600x427.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Hweq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40782a9d-3111-4bd6-99d2-0c0a43901de4_1600x427.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Hweq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40782a9d-3111-4bd6-99d2-0c0a43901de4_1600x427.png" width="1456" height="389" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/40782a9d-3111-4bd6-99d2-0c0a43901de4_1600x427.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:389,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:28638,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207667637?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40782a9d-3111-4bd6-99d2-0c0a43901de4_1600x427.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Hweq!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40782a9d-3111-4bd6-99d2-0c0a43901de4_1600x427.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Hweq!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40782a9d-3111-4bd6-99d2-0c0a43901de4_1600x427.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Hweq!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40782a9d-3111-4bd6-99d2-0c0a43901de4_1600x427.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Hweq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40782a9d-3111-4bd6-99d2-0c0a43901de4_1600x427.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">At the exit from the workshop, a fork the machine does not settle: free time or unemployment, depending on who captures the gain.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p><em>Main sources: <a href="https://restofworld.org/2026/china-ai-robotics-training-data/">Rest of World</a> (Viola Zhou, 3 June 2026); Bank of America, 2026 humanoid analysis (via Fortune); Goldman Sachs / Deloitte Tech Trends 2026; Stanford research on the simulation/real gap (via Fortune, May 2026); Figure AI and BMW Group releases (2023-2026); Eurostat / Rexecode, labour costs Q1 2026; TrendForce; Bloomberg (Chinese manufacturing employment); trade press on Xiaomi (Changping) and Zeekr (Ningbo), including the Wall Street Journal; Morgan Stanley, McKinsey and Goldman Sachs statements on banking employment; <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/the-byd-ization">BYD-ization</a> dossier.</em></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>All our publications are free and Copyleft. They may be republished, in whole or in part, under following conditions:</strong><br><strong>&#8594; keeping the title and content</strong><br><strong>(text, images, editor&#8217;s or translator&#8217;s notes, boxes)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; crediting the author(s) and/or translator(s)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; inserting a clickable link to the source.</strong><br><strong>Any monetization or commercial use of these publications is prohibited and will be subject to legal action.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Deux routes mènent à l’usine sans ouvriers ; l’Occident a pris la plus chère]]></title><description><![CDATA[Que l'humain sorte de l'atelier ou du bureau, ce qu'il devient ensuite, temps lib&#233;r&#233; ou ch&#244;mage, d&#233;pend de qui capte le gain]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/deux-routes-menent-a-lusine-sans</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/deux-routes-menent-a-lusine-sans</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 19 Jul 2026 18:00:52 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p><strong><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/zwei-wege-fuhren-zur-fabrik-ohne"><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">Deutsch</span></a><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"> - </span><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/207667637"><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">English</span></a><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"> - </span><a href="https://faustotounsi.substack.com/publish/post/207669561"><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">Espa&#241;ol</span></a><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"> - </span><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/207643900"><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">Fran&#231;ais</span></a><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">- </span><a href="https://faustotounsi.substack.com/publish/post/207760542"><span data-color="#0000ff" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">Italiano</span></a></strong></p></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2358815,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Photographie au cr&#233;puscule. Au centre, un grand complexe industriel dont les fen&#234;tres s'assombrissent. Une route bifurque. &#192; gauche, une usine ancienne en brique, &#224; &#233;chelle humaine, o&#249; un robot humano&#239;de blanc au torse marqu&#233; de rouge monte vers une porte &#233;clair&#233;e. &#192; droite, un hall vitr&#233; moderne, baign&#233; d'une lumi&#232;re froide, rempli de bras robotis&#233;s align&#233;s sans aucun ouvrier. Au premier plan, de dos, un ouvrier en bleu de travail quitte le site, un sac &#224; la main.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207643900?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Photographie au cr&#233;puscule. Au centre, un grand complexe industriel dont les fen&#234;tres s'assombrissent. Une route bifurque. &#192; gauche, une usine ancienne en brique, &#224; &#233;chelle humaine, o&#249; un robot humano&#239;de blanc au torse marqu&#233; de rouge monte vers une porte &#233;clair&#233;e. &#192; droite, un hall vitr&#233; moderne, baign&#233; d'une lumi&#232;re froide, rempli de bras robotis&#233;s align&#233;s sans aucun ouvrier. Au premier plan, de dos, un ouvrier en bleu de travail quitte le site, un sac &#224; la main." title="Photographie au cr&#233;puscule. Au centre, un grand complexe industriel dont les fen&#234;tres s'assombrissent. Une route bifurque. &#192; gauche, une usine ancienne en brique, &#224; &#233;chelle humaine, o&#249; un robot humano&#239;de blanc au torse marqu&#233; de rouge monte vers une porte &#233;clair&#233;e. &#192; droite, un hall vitr&#233; moderne, baign&#233; d'une lumi&#232;re froide, rempli de bras robotis&#233;s align&#233;s sans aucun ouvrier. Au premier plan, de dos, un ouvrier en bleu de travail quitte le site, un sac &#224; la main." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jTAl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc592bd10-5ea4-4f7c-a001-60c140532986_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Deux fa&#231;ons de retirer l'humain de l'usine : &#224; gauche, un robot humano&#239;de gliss&#233; dans l'atelier ancien ; &#224; droite, un hall con&#231;u pour les machines. Au milieu, l'ouvrier s'en va.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Dans le Shandong, une province de l&#8217;est de la Chine, une femme d&#8217;une cinquantaine d&#8217;ann&#233;es, m&#232;re au foyer, se filme six heures par jour en train de plier du linge, de verser de l&#8217;eau, d&#8217;ouvrir des tiroirs. Gao Bo touche une vingtaine de yuans de l&#8217;heure, environ trois euros, pour produire de la donn&#233;e gestuelle qui servira &#224; entra&#238;ner des robots humano&#239;des. JD.com, l&#8217;un des g&#233;ants chinois du commerce en ligne, dit vouloir enr&#244;ler jusqu&#8217;&#224; 500 000 personnes comme elle ; des entreprises usam&#233;ricaines sous-traitent la m&#234;me collecte &#224; l&#8217;&#233;tranger. Alan Fern, chercheur en robotique &#224; l&#8217;Oregon State University, juge la m&#233;thode &#171; tr&#232;s peu &#233;tay&#233;e &#187;. La course ne s&#8217;arr&#234;te pas pour si peu.</p><p>Le corps de Gao Bo est une mati&#232;re premi&#232;re. Ce qu&#8217;elle fabrique ne partira pas dans une usine : les humano&#239;des qu&#8217;elle entra&#238;ne sont destin&#233;s &#224; des espaces con&#231;us pour des humains, un logement, un commerce, un entrep&#244;t encombr&#233;, l&#224; o&#249; il faut un geste souple et non une ligne fixe. C&#8217;est d&#233;j&#224; un indice. Retirer l&#8217;humain du travail ne suit pas partout le m&#234;me chemin, et confondre ces chemins fausse le raisonnement. Il en existe au moins trois. Le d&#233;bat public en tient deux pour un seul, et n&#233;glige le troisi&#232;me.</p><h2>L&#8217;usine b&#226;tie pour des corps humains n&#8217;accueille que le robot &#224; forme humaine</h2><p>Une usine existante a &#233;t&#233; dessin&#233;e autour de l&#8217;ouvrier : hauteur des &#233;tablis, taille des bacs, pr&#233;hension des outils, largeur des all&#233;es, tout est cal&#233; sur un corps. Pour l&#8217;automatiser sans la reconstruire, on y glisse une machine qui a la forme de celui qu&#8217;elle remplace. La forme humano&#239;de n&#8217;a pas d&#8217;autre raison d&#8217;&#234;tre : elle &#233;pouse un environnement humain qu&#8217;on ne veut pas refaire.</p><p>C&#8217;est le r&#233;gime que documente le pilote de BMW &#224; Spartanburg, en Caroline du Sud. Le robot Figure 02 y a charg&#233; plus de 90 000 pi&#232;ces de t&#244;le sur 1 250 heures, avec un taux de placement sup&#233;rieur &#224; 99 % et un temps de cycle tenu, contribuant &#224; la production de plus de 30 000 X3. En mai puis juin 2026, BMW est pass&#233; au d&#233;ploiement commercial du mod&#232;le suivant, Figure 03 : une flotte d&#8217;environ 40 unit&#233;s sur des postes de carrosserie et d&#8217;assemblage, factur&#233;e autour de 25 dollars par heure-robot, que Figure pr&#233;sente comme le premier contrat humano&#239;de payant &#224; l&#8217;&#233;chelle industrielle, avec des extensions annonc&#233;es vers les sites allemands de Munich, Ratisbonne et Leipzig. Hyundai suit la m&#234;me route, plus loin encore : plus de 25 000 robots Atlas pr&#233;vus dans ses usines, s&#233;quen&#231;age des pi&#232;ces &#224; partir de 2028, assemblage complet vis&#233; pour 2030, avec l&#8217;objectif assum&#233; d&#8217;une cha&#238;ne fonctionnant lumi&#232;res &#233;teintes.</p><p>C&#8217;est le seul des trois r&#233;gimes o&#249; la comparaison entre le geste de l&#8217;ouvrier et celui du robot a un sens, parce qu&#8217;un poste humain se tient en face du poste automatis&#233;. On peut donc y chiffrer une parit&#233;, &#224; condition de ne pas la surestimer. Une unit&#233; occidentale co&#251;te aujourd&#8217;hui de 90 000 &#224; 100 000 dollars selon Bank of America (BofA) ; sa nomenclature chinoise revient plut&#244;t &#224; 35 000, et BofA la projette sous 17 000 dollars d&#8217;ici 2030, une baisse de l&#8217;ordre de 13 % par an. Goldman Sachs avait mesur&#233; une chute des co&#251;ts de fabrication de 40 % entre 2023 et 2024, mouvement ponctuel qu&#8217;il ne faut pas confondre avec un rythme r&#233;current. Rapport&#233; &#224; l&#8217;heure, le contrat de Spartanburg, environ 25 dollars par heure-robot, place le robot sous le co&#251;t d&#8217;un ouvrier automobile usam&#233;ricain, pay&#233; 50 &#224; 70 dollars, ou d&#8217;un ouvrier manufacturier allemand, &#224; environ 49,50 euros de l&#8217;heure au premier trimestre 2026.</p><p>Cette comparaison flatte le robot. Elle suppose qu&#8217;il abat le travail d&#8217;un ouvrier, or il en est encore loin. Les humano&#239;des de 2026 prennent en charge 60 &#224; 80 % des t&#226;ches en environnement structur&#233;, mais 20 &#224; 40 % seulement dans une usine complexe ; et une &#233;tude de Stanford rel&#232;ve que des robots r&#233;ussissant pr&#232;s de 90 % d&#8217;une t&#226;che en simulation n&#8217;en r&#233;ussissent que 12 % en conditions r&#233;elles. BMW lui-m&#234;me chiffre &#224; 15 % le gain d&#8217;efficacit&#233; de ligne l&#224; o&#249; Figure 02 travaille aux c&#244;t&#233;s d&#8217;ouvriers, non &#224; leur place. Le tarif de 25 dollars reste par ailleurs un prix de vitrine, n&#233;goci&#233; sur un contrat strat&#233;gique, pas un prix de march&#233; stabilis&#233;. Corrig&#233; de ce que le robot accomplit r&#233;ellement, son co&#251;t par unit&#233; de travail rejoint celui de l&#8217;ouvrier, ou le d&#233;passe.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EjfV!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ae3c2f-2dcb-47d4-aa02-39c8c79ba35c_2000x1020.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EjfV!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ae3c2f-2dcb-47d4-aa02-39c8c79ba35c_2000x1020.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EjfV!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ae3c2f-2dcb-47d4-aa02-39c8c79ba35c_2000x1020.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EjfV!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ae3c2f-2dcb-47d4-aa02-39c8c79ba35c_2000x1020.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EjfV!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ae3c2f-2dcb-47d4-aa02-39c8c79ba35c_2000x1020.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EjfV!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ae3c2f-2dcb-47d4-aa02-39c8c79ba35c_2000x1020.png" width="1456" height="743" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/97ae3c2f-2dcb-47d4-aa02-39c8c79ba35c_2000x1020.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:743,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:149935,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Graphique &#224; barres horizontales comparant le co&#251;t horaire dans une usine automobile allemande. Le robot au tarif affich&#233; revient &#224; environ 23 euros de l'heure, soit 25 dollars par heure-robot pour un Figure 03 d&#233;ploy&#233; chez BMW. L'ouvrier charg&#233; co&#251;te environ 50 euros de l'heure selon Eurostat 2026. Une troisi&#232;me barre, pr&#233;sent&#233;e comme un sc&#233;nario incertain, indique que corrig&#233; de ce que le robot accomplit vraiment, son co&#251;t par unit&#233; de travail rejoint ou d&#233;passe celui de l'ouvrier : l'humano&#239;de ne couvre que 20 &#224; 40 % des t&#226;ches en usine complexe, et r&#233;ussit environ 90 % des t&#226;ches en simulation contre 12 % en conditions r&#233;elles.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207643900?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ae3c2f-2dcb-47d4-aa02-39c8c79ba35c_2000x1020.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Graphique &#224; barres horizontales comparant le co&#251;t horaire dans une usine automobile allemande. Le robot au tarif affich&#233; revient &#224; environ 23 euros de l'heure, soit 25 dollars par heure-robot pour un Figure 03 d&#233;ploy&#233; chez BMW. L'ouvrier charg&#233; co&#251;te environ 50 euros de l'heure selon Eurostat 2026. Une troisi&#232;me barre, pr&#233;sent&#233;e comme un sc&#233;nario incertain, indique que corrig&#233; de ce que le robot accomplit vraiment, son co&#251;t par unit&#233; de travail rejoint ou d&#233;passe celui de l'ouvrier : l'humano&#239;de ne couvre que 20 &#224; 40 % des t&#226;ches en usine complexe, et r&#233;ussit environ 90 % des t&#226;ches en simulation contre 12 % en conditions r&#233;elles." title="Graphique &#224; barres horizontales comparant le co&#251;t horaire dans une usine automobile allemande. Le robot au tarif affich&#233; revient &#224; environ 23 euros de l'heure, soit 25 dollars par heure-robot pour un Figure 03 d&#233;ploy&#233; chez BMW. L'ouvrier charg&#233; co&#251;te environ 50 euros de l'heure selon Eurostat 2026. Une troisi&#232;me barre, pr&#233;sent&#233;e comme un sc&#233;nario incertain, indique que corrig&#233; de ce que le robot accomplit vraiment, son co&#251;t par unit&#233; de travail rejoint ou d&#233;passe celui de l'ouvrier : l'humano&#239;de ne couvre que 20 &#224; 40 % des t&#226;ches en usine complexe, et r&#233;ussit environ 90 % des t&#226;ches en simulation contre 12 % en conditions r&#233;elles." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EjfV!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ae3c2f-2dcb-47d4-aa02-39c8c79ba35c_2000x1020.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EjfV!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ae3c2f-2dcb-47d4-aa02-39c8c79ba35c_2000x1020.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EjfV!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ae3c2f-2dcb-47d4-aa02-39c8c79ba35c_2000x1020.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EjfV!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ae3c2f-2dcb-47d4-aa02-39c8c79ba35c_2000x1020.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>L&#8217;avantage du robot tient &#224; ce qui entoure le geste. Il tourne la nuit, le week-end, en &#233;quipes successives, et son prix d&#8217;achat continue de baisser. Il ne se syndique pas, ne fait pas gr&#232;ve, ne prend pas de cong&#233;. Ces avantages sont d&#8217;un autre ordre que la productivit&#233; : ils rel&#232;vent du rapport social, et profitent &#224; qui d&#233;tient la machine.</p><h2>L&#8217;usine pens&#233;e pour des machines n&#8217;a aucun poste humain &#224; remplacer</h2><p>L&#8217;autre route dessine l&#8217;atelier autour des machines d&#232;s la planche &#224; dessin, et l&#8217;ouvrier n&#8217;y figure pas. Pas d&#8217;humano&#239;de : des bras fixes, de la vision par ordinateur, une orchestration par logiciel. C&#8217;est le mod&#232;le que la Chine a d&#8217;abord &#233;prouv&#233; dans l&#8217;&#233;lectronique. L&#8217;usine Xiaomi de Changping, &#224; P&#233;kin, ouverte en 2024, produit jusqu&#8217;&#224; dix millions de smartphones par an, pilot&#233;e de bout en bout par un syst&#232;me maison, sans personnel sur la ligne et sans lumi&#232;re. Xiaomi d&#233;clare produire un t&#233;l&#233;phone par seconde ; rapport&#233; au volume annonc&#233;, le rythme r&#233;el est plut&#244;t d&#8217;un toutes les trois secondes.</p><p>Le m&#234;me principe a gagn&#233; l&#8217;automobile. &#192; Ningbo, l&#8217;usine &#171; intelligente &#187; de Zeekr, la marque premium de Geely, aligne plus de 800 robots dans son seul atelier de soudure et produit environ 800 voitures &#233;lectriques par jour, pr&#232;s de 300 000 par an, sur un site con&#231;u d&#8217;un seul tenant en trois ans. Son vice-pr&#233;sident revendique une production &#171; presque enti&#232;rement &#187; sans lumi&#232;re. Presque : le <em>Wall Street Journal</em> note que le c&#226;blage, minutieux, reste manuel, et que des techniciens entrent encore entretenir les robots. L&#8217;usine Xiaomi de v&#233;hicules &#233;lectriques, &#224; P&#233;kin, affiche un taux d&#8217;automatisation de 91 %, certaines lignes comme la fonderie &#233;tant int&#233;gralement robotis&#233;es.</p><p>Ici, la question du prix d&#8217;un humano&#239;de n&#8217;a aucune pertinence, puisqu&#8217;il n&#8217;y a pas d&#8217;humano&#239;de ni de poste humain en vis-&#224;-vis. La bonne mesure est la ligne enti&#232;re contre la ligne enti&#232;re : capital immobilis&#233;, cadence, taux de rebut, rendement au m&#232;tre carr&#233;. On ne compare plus deux gestes, on compare deux proc&#233;d&#233;s.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FaS6!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F508efbf9-5b59-4616-87ae-5b8dd47831e2_1500x500.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FaS6!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F508efbf9-5b59-4616-87ae-5b8dd47831e2_1500x500.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FaS6!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F508efbf9-5b59-4616-87ae-5b8dd47831e2_1500x500.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FaS6!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F508efbf9-5b59-4616-87ae-5b8dd47831e2_1500x500.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FaS6!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F508efbf9-5b59-4616-87ae-5b8dd47831e2_1500x500.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FaS6!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F508efbf9-5b59-4616-87ae-5b8dd47831e2_1500x500.png" width="1456" height="485" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/508efbf9-5b59-4616-87ae-5b8dd47831e2_1500x500.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:485,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:16845,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Sch&#233;ma. &#192; droite, un grand hall (cadre gris) contient une ligne d'assemblage robotis&#233;e rouge, faite de bras fixes et d'un convoyeur, sans aucun humano&#239;de. &#192; gauche, hors du hall, une silhouette humaine grise estomp&#233;e, l&#233;gend&#233;e &#171; personne &#224; remplacer &#187;. L&#233;gende g&#233;n&#233;rale : aucun poste humain &#224; remplacer. L'usine con&#231;ue pour les machines ne comporte pas de poste humain que le robot viendrait occuper.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207643900?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F508efbf9-5b59-4616-87ae-5b8dd47831e2_1500x500.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Sch&#233;ma. &#192; droite, un grand hall (cadre gris) contient une ligne d'assemblage robotis&#233;e rouge, faite de bras fixes et d'un convoyeur, sans aucun humano&#239;de. &#192; gauche, hors du hall, une silhouette humaine grise estomp&#233;e, l&#233;gend&#233;e &#171; personne &#224; remplacer &#187;. L&#233;gende g&#233;n&#233;rale : aucun poste humain &#224; remplacer. L'usine con&#231;ue pour les machines ne comporte pas de poste humain que le robot viendrait occuper." title="Sch&#233;ma. &#192; droite, un grand hall (cadre gris) contient une ligne d'assemblage robotis&#233;e rouge, faite de bras fixes et d'un convoyeur, sans aucun humano&#239;de. &#192; gauche, hors du hall, une silhouette humaine grise estomp&#233;e, l&#233;gend&#233;e &#171; personne &#224; remplacer &#187;. L&#233;gende g&#233;n&#233;rale : aucun poste humain &#224; remplacer. L'usine con&#231;ue pour les machines ne comporte pas de poste humain que le robot viendrait occuper." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FaS6!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F508efbf9-5b59-4616-87ae-5b8dd47831e2_1500x500.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FaS6!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F508efbf9-5b59-4616-87ae-5b8dd47831e2_1500x500.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FaS6!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F508efbf9-5b59-4616-87ae-5b8dd47831e2_1500x500.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FaS6!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F508efbf9-5b59-4616-87ae-5b8dd47831e2_1500x500.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">L&#8217;usine con&#231;ue pour les machines : une ligne pens&#233;e sans poste humain. Il n&#8217;y a personne &#224; remplacer, seulement des proc&#233;d&#233;s &#224; comparer d&#8217;une ligne &#224; l&#8217;autre.</figcaption></figure></div><h2>L&#8217;Occident automatise son ancien monde avec l&#8217;outil du nouveau</h2><p>L&#8217;&#233;cart d&#233;cisif se joue entre les deux voies. L&#8217;Occident modernise l&#8217;existant parce qu&#8217;il tra&#238;ne un parc d&#8217;usines et des effectifs b&#226;tis pour des corps humains. Raser pour reconstruire &#224; la chinoise co&#251;terait un capital qu&#8217;il ne veut pas engager, financier mais aussi humain : les savoir-faire accumul&#233;s, les bassins d&#8217;emploi, les contrats sociaux nou&#233;s autour de chaque site. Il glisse donc l&#8217;humano&#239;de dans la coquille ancienne. La Chine a b&#226;ti ses lignes r&#233;centes sur des terrains neufs, o&#249; aucun effectif n&#8217;&#233;tait &#224; d&#233;placer sur place ; elle n&#8217;a pas &#233;pargn&#233; ce co&#251;t humain, elle l&#8217;a report&#233; dans l&#8217;agr&#233;gat. Sa main-d&#8217;&#339;uvre manufacturi&#232;re est pass&#233;e de 115 millions en 2013 &#224; moins de 85 millions en 2025, une perte de plus de trente millions d&#8217;emplois selon Bloomberg, ses exportations battant des records dans le m&#234;me temps.</p><p>Le tranchant vient de l&#8217;outil. L&#8217;humano&#239;de qui ex&#233;cute cette modernisation occidentale est, pour l&#8217;essentiel, chinois. Le G1 d&#8217;Unitree se vend autour de 16 000 dollars quand l&#8217;unit&#233; occidentale en co&#251;te six fois plus ; Unitree a livr&#233; plus de 5 500 robots en 2025, AgiBot environ 5 000 selon TrendForce, et BYD s&#8217;&#233;quipe chez ce dernier. Les cat&#233;gories ne sont pas homog&#232;nes, un humano&#239;de complet n&#8217;est pas un bras mobile, et il ne faut pas surinterpr&#233;ter ces volumes ; mais la direction est nette. Quand l&#8217;Occident retire l&#8217;humain de son vieil atelier, il ach&#232;te &#224; Hangzhou la machine qui l&#8217;y remplace. Le produit, puis l&#8217;outil, puis la donn&#233;e : c&#8217;est la m&#233;canique que <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/la-byd-isation">cette s&#233;rie</a> nomme depuis le d&#233;but, et Gao Bo en occupe le troisi&#232;me &#233;tage.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zBZT!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fddbf990e-41e3-4cd1-879f-377390920663_1600x587.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zBZT!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fddbf990e-41e3-4cd1-879f-377390920663_1600x587.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zBZT!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fddbf990e-41e3-4cd1-879f-377390920663_1600x587.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zBZT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fddbf990e-41e3-4cd1-879f-377390920663_1600x587.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zBZT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fddbf990e-41e3-4cd1-879f-377390920663_1600x587.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zBZT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fddbf990e-41e3-4cd1-879f-377390920663_1600x587.png" width="1456" height="534" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ddbf990e-41e3-4cd1-879f-377390920663_1600x587.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:534,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:31215,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Sch&#233;ma. Au centre, une usine aux fen&#234;tres noires, &#233;teinte. Deux routes y m&#232;nent. &#192; gauche, sur une route grise, un robot humano&#239;de rouge marche vers l'usine : la modernisation de l'existant, un robot gliss&#233; dans l'usine ancienne. &#192; droite, sur une route rouge, une ligne d'assemblage robotis&#233;e rouge, sans humano&#239;de : l'usine con&#231;ue pour les machines. Le rouge signale l'origine chinoise de l'outil dans les deux cas. Au premier plan, une petite silhouette humaine grise sort de l'usine.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207643900?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fddbf990e-41e3-4cd1-879f-377390920663_1600x587.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Sch&#233;ma. Au centre, une usine aux fen&#234;tres noires, &#233;teinte. Deux routes y m&#232;nent. &#192; gauche, sur une route grise, un robot humano&#239;de rouge marche vers l'usine : la modernisation de l'existant, un robot gliss&#233; dans l'usine ancienne. &#192; droite, sur une route rouge, une ligne d'assemblage robotis&#233;e rouge, sans humano&#239;de : l'usine con&#231;ue pour les machines. Le rouge signale l'origine chinoise de l'outil dans les deux cas. Au premier plan, une petite silhouette humaine grise sort de l'usine." title="Sch&#233;ma. Au centre, une usine aux fen&#234;tres noires, &#233;teinte. Deux routes y m&#232;nent. &#192; gauche, sur une route grise, un robot humano&#239;de rouge marche vers l'usine : la modernisation de l'existant, un robot gliss&#233; dans l'usine ancienne. &#192; droite, sur une route rouge, une ligne d'assemblage robotis&#233;e rouge, sans humano&#239;de : l'usine con&#231;ue pour les machines. Le rouge signale l'origine chinoise de l'outil dans les deux cas. Au premier plan, une petite silhouette humaine grise sort de l'usine." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zBZT!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fddbf990e-41e3-4cd1-879f-377390920663_1600x587.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zBZT!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fddbf990e-41e3-4cd1-879f-377390920663_1600x587.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zBZT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fddbf990e-41e3-4cd1-879f-377390920663_1600x587.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zBZT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fddbf990e-41e3-4cd1-879f-377390920663_1600x587.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Les deux voies vers l&#8217;usine sans ouvriers. &#192; gauche, un humano&#239;de gliss&#233; dans l&#8217;atelier ancien ; &#224; droite, une ligne con&#231;ue pour les machines. En rouge, l&#8217;outil chinois, pr&#233;sent des deux c&#244;t&#233;s.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Hyundai cristallise le malentendu. Nous avons montr&#233; dans le <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-24-metaplant-la-vitrine-dhier">deuxi&#232;me volet de notre dossier cor&#233;en</a> que son projet Atlas se lit comme une r&#233;plique tardive du mod&#232;le chinois d&#8217;usine sans lumi&#232;re. La carte des deux routes le pr&#233;cise : ce n&#8217;est m&#234;me pas une r&#233;plique fid&#232;le, puisque l&#8217;usine noire chinoise n&#8217;emploie pas d&#8217;humano&#239;des. Hyundai vise le m&#234;me r&#233;sultat, l&#8217;atelier &#233;teint, mais par la route humano&#239;de et sur des sites existants, pour rejoindre un point que la Chine a atteint par l&#8217;autre chemin. Tout le d&#233;bat occidental sur le prix de l&#8217;humano&#239;de, sur l&#8217;heure &#224; laquelle il devient moins cher qu&#8217;un ouvrier, se tient &#224; l&#8217;int&#233;rieur de la voie la plus ch&#232;re. Il mesure avec soin un affrontement qui n&#8217;est pas celui qui d&#233;cide.</p><h2>Le troisi&#232;me atelier n&#8217;a ni corps ni ligne</h2><p>Reste le r&#233;gime que le d&#233;bat sur les usines oublie, parce qu&#8217;il ne ressemble &#224; aucune usine. Le logiciel vide le bureau. Aucun corps, aucune ligne physique : un grand mod&#232;le de langage ex&#233;cute des t&#226;ches qui occupaient des cols blancs. Le patron de Goldman Sachs, David Solomon, affirme qu&#8217;un outil interne r&#233;dige d&#233;sormais 95 % d&#8217;un prospectus d&#8217;introduction en Bourse, un document qui mobilisait nagu&#232;re des &#233;quipes enti&#232;res. Morgan Stanley &#233;value &#224; 200 000 le nombre de postes bancaires europ&#233;ens menac&#233;s d&#8217;ici 2030. McKinsey r&#233;duit ses promotions de jeunes analystes jusqu&#8217;aux deux tiers. Les analystes ne sont pas seuls expos&#233;s : les assistants de code visent les informaticiens, dans la banque comme ailleurs, et la menace d&#233;borde largement la finance.</p><p>La prudence s&#8217;impose sur ce front, car la part de mise en sc&#232;ne y est r&#233;elle : plusieurs banques usam&#233;ricaines g&#232;lent l&#8217;embauche plus qu&#8217;elles ne suppriment, et les r&#233;ductions annonc&#233;es ne sont pas toutes imputables &#224; l&#8217;IA par ceux-l&#224; m&#234;mes qui les d&#233;cident. Quand une banque relie explicitement une baisse d&#8217;effectif par attrition &#224; ses outils d&#8217;IA, le lien est &#233;tabli ; quand elle restructure largement sans le formuler ainsi, l&#8217;attribuer &#224; la machine rel&#232;ve de l&#8217;interpr&#233;tation, parfois du pr&#233;texte, l&#8217;IA servant de justification commode &#224; des coupes d&#233;cid&#233;es pour d&#8217;autres raisons. La tendance n&#8217;en est pas moins l&#224;, et elle retire l&#8217;humain du travail par une voie qui n&#8217;a ni geste ni cha&#238;ne.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Y1H!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F989abc54-e31f-4567-9711-74ad903e4d0a_1500x425.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Y1H!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F989abc54-e31f-4567-9711-74ad903e4d0a_1500x425.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Y1H!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F989abc54-e31f-4567-9711-74ad903e4d0a_1500x425.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Y1H!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F989abc54-e31f-4567-9711-74ad903e4d0a_1500x425.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Y1H!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F989abc54-e31f-4567-9711-74ad903e4d0a_1500x425.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Y1H!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F989abc54-e31f-4567-9711-74ad903e4d0a_1500x425.png" width="1456" height="413" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/989abc54-e31f-4567-9711-74ad903e4d0a_1500x425.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:413,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:25826,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Sch&#233;ma en noir et gris. Trois ic&#244;nes. Un robot humano&#239;de barr&#233; d'un trait, l&#233;gend&#233; &#171; ni corps &#187;. Un convoyeur barr&#233; d'un trait, l&#233;gend&#233; &#171; ni ligne &#187;. Un bureau avec un &#233;cran affichant du texte et une chaise vide, l&#233;gend&#233; &#171; le logiciel &#187;. L&#233;gende g&#233;n&#233;rale : le logiciel vide le bureau. Le troisi&#232;me r&#233;gime d'automatisation n'a ni robot ni cha&#238;ne physique ; c'est un logiciel qui supprime les postes de bureau.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207643900?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F989abc54-e31f-4567-9711-74ad903e4d0a_1500x425.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Sch&#233;ma en noir et gris. Trois ic&#244;nes. Un robot humano&#239;de barr&#233; d'un trait, l&#233;gend&#233; &#171; ni corps &#187;. Un convoyeur barr&#233; d'un trait, l&#233;gend&#233; &#171; ni ligne &#187;. Un bureau avec un &#233;cran affichant du texte et une chaise vide, l&#233;gend&#233; &#171; le logiciel &#187;. L&#233;gende g&#233;n&#233;rale : le logiciel vide le bureau. Le troisi&#232;me r&#233;gime d'automatisation n'a ni robot ni cha&#238;ne physique ; c'est un logiciel qui supprime les postes de bureau." title="Sch&#233;ma en noir et gris. Trois ic&#244;nes. Un robot humano&#239;de barr&#233; d'un trait, l&#233;gend&#233; &#171; ni corps &#187;. Un convoyeur barr&#233; d'un trait, l&#233;gend&#233; &#171; ni ligne &#187;. Un bureau avec un &#233;cran affichant du texte et une chaise vide, l&#233;gend&#233; &#171; le logiciel &#187;. L&#233;gende g&#233;n&#233;rale : le logiciel vide le bureau. Le troisi&#232;me r&#233;gime d'automatisation n'a ni robot ni cha&#238;ne physique ; c'est un logiciel qui supprime les postes de bureau." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Y1H!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F989abc54-e31f-4567-9711-74ad903e4d0a_1500x425.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Y1H!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F989abc54-e31f-4567-9711-74ad903e4d0a_1500x425.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Y1H!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F989abc54-e31f-4567-9711-74ad903e4d0a_1500x425.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Y1H!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F989abc54-e31f-4567-9711-74ad903e4d0a_1500x425.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Le troisi&#232;me atelier n&#8217;a ni corps ni ligne : pas de robot, pas de convoyeur. Un logiciel suffit &#224; vider le bureau.</figcaption></figure></div><h2>Dans les trois ateliers l&#8217;humain sort ; ce qui l&#8217;attend dehors ne se d&#233;cide pas dans l&#8217;atelier</h2><p>Les trois r&#233;gimes partagent un r&#233;sultat : une quantit&#233; produite maintenue, ou accrue, avec beaucoup moins d&#8217;heures de travail humain. Ce que devient l&#8217;heure retranch&#233;e, temps lib&#233;r&#233; ou ch&#244;mage, la machine ne le dit pas. Cela d&#233;pend de qui capte le gain de productivit&#233;. Un gain empoch&#233; par la marge et le licenciement r&#233;tr&#233;cit le pouvoir d&#8217;achat ; un gain partag&#233;, en temps r&#233;duit &#224; revenu maintenu, l&#8217;entretient. Le partage n&#8217;est donc pas seulement une affaire de justice ; il d&#233;cide si le syst&#232;me se nourrit ou s&#8217;&#233;touffe.</p><p>Paul Lafargue l&#8217;avait &#233;crit il y a cent quarante ans, dans <em>Le Droit &#224; la paresse</em> : &#171; Nos machines au souffle de feu &#187; promettaient des loisirs et la libert&#233;. Les machines sont arriv&#233;es ; le loisir n&#8217;a pas suivi de lui-m&#234;me. La promesse n&#8217;&#233;tait pas fausse, elle &#233;tait conditionnelle, et la condition n&#8217;a jamais &#233;t&#233; technique.</p><p>Dire que l&#8217;Occident a pris la voie la plus ch&#232;re ne parle que d&#8217;argent. Sur le plan social, les deux routes se rejoignent : l&#8217;une comme l&#8217;autre retire l&#8217;ouvrier de l&#8217;atelier, ici en le rempla&#231;ant poste par poste, l&#224; en concevant l&#8217;usine sans lui. Le co&#251;t humain se mesure ailleurs que dans le prix du robot, dans ce que la collectivit&#233; fait des heures et des gens que la machine lib&#232;re.</p><p>Un lecteur nous a oppos&#233;, <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-24-metaplant-la-vitrine-dhier/comments">en commentaire de notre article sur Metaplant</a>, l&#8217;objection ancienne de la sous-consommation : si l&#8217;automatisation retire l&#8217;humain partout, &#224; qui vend-on ? Jusqu'ici, &#224; chaque vague &#8212; le m&#233;tier m&#233;canique, le tracteur, la bureautique &#8212;, la demande a reparu ailleurs, la baisse des co&#251;ts lib&#233;rant du pouvoir d'achat pour des activit&#233;s neuves, sans garantie qu'elle profite &#224; ceux qu'elle d&#233;place, ni qu'elle revienne au m&#234;me endroit, ni assez vite. Que la demande tienne cette fois d&#233;pend d'une chose : que les gains de la machine reviennent &#224; ceux qu'elle remplace, en salaires et en temps libre, au lieu d'&#234;tre capt&#233;s. La question m&#233;rite un article &#224; part, que nous &#233;crirons peut-&#234;tre.</p><p>Gao Bo, elle, entra&#238;ne pour trois dollars de l&#8217;heure une machine qui ira travailler l&#224; o&#249; elle-m&#234;me ne pourra pas la suivre. La productivit&#233; qu&#8217;elle aide &#224; fabriquer appartiendra &#224; quelqu&#8217;un. Les trois ateliers laissent ouverte la seule question qui compte : &#224; qui.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8m3l!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1711111e-0e68-4eea-84e9-e3c1196dfc12_1600x427.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8m3l!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1711111e-0e68-4eea-84e9-e3c1196dfc12_1600x427.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8m3l!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1711111e-0e68-4eea-84e9-e3c1196dfc12_1600x427.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8m3l!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1711111e-0e68-4eea-84e9-e3c1196dfc12_1600x427.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8m3l!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1711111e-0e68-4eea-84e9-e3c1196dfc12_1600x427.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8m3l!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1711111e-0e68-4eea-84e9-e3c1196dfc12_1600x427.png" width="1456" height="389" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1711111e-0e68-4eea-84e9-e3c1196dfc12_1600x427.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:389,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:30397,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Illustration en noir et gris. &#192; gauche, une usine noire &#233;teinte dont sort un ouvrier, silhouette grise, qui marche vers un embranchement. La route se s&#233;pare en deux. La branche du haut m&#232;ne &#224; un transat sous un soleil, l&#233;gend&#233;e &#171; temps lib&#233;r&#233; &#187;. La branche du bas m&#232;ne &#224; une grille ferm&#233;e par un cadenas, l&#233;gend&#233;e &#171; ch&#244;mage &#187;. Un grand point d'interrogation surplombe l'embranchement : la machine ne tranche pas entre les deux issues.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207643900?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1711111e-0e68-4eea-84e9-e3c1196dfc12_1600x427.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Illustration en noir et gris. &#192; gauche, une usine noire &#233;teinte dont sort un ouvrier, silhouette grise, qui marche vers un embranchement. La route se s&#233;pare en deux. La branche du haut m&#232;ne &#224; un transat sous un soleil, l&#233;gend&#233;e &#171; temps lib&#233;r&#233; &#187;. La branche du bas m&#232;ne &#224; une grille ferm&#233;e par un cadenas, l&#233;gend&#233;e &#171; ch&#244;mage &#187;. Un grand point d'interrogation surplombe l'embranchement : la machine ne tranche pas entre les deux issues." title="Illustration en noir et gris. &#192; gauche, une usine noire &#233;teinte dont sort un ouvrier, silhouette grise, qui marche vers un embranchement. La route se s&#233;pare en deux. La branche du haut m&#232;ne &#224; un transat sous un soleil, l&#233;gend&#233;e &#171; temps lib&#233;r&#233; &#187;. La branche du bas m&#232;ne &#224; une grille ferm&#233;e par un cadenas, l&#233;gend&#233;e &#171; ch&#244;mage &#187;. Un grand point d'interrogation surplombe l'embranchement : la machine ne tranche pas entre les deux issues." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8m3l!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1711111e-0e68-4eea-84e9-e3c1196dfc12_1600x427.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8m3l!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1711111e-0e68-4eea-84e9-e3c1196dfc12_1600x427.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8m3l!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1711111e-0e68-4eea-84e9-e3c1196dfc12_1600x427.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8m3l!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1711111e-0e68-4eea-84e9-e3c1196dfc12_1600x427.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">&#192; la sortie de l&#8217;atelier, une bifurcation que la machine ne tranche pas : temps lib&#233;r&#233; ou ch&#244;mage, selon qui capte le gain.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p><em><strong>Sources principales :</strong> <a href="https://restofworld.org/2026/china-ai-robotics-training-data/">Rest of World</a> (Viola Zhou, 3 juin 2026) ; Bank of America, analyse humano&#239;des 2026 (via Fortune) ; Goldman Sachs / Deloitte Tech Trends 2026 ; recherche Stanford sur l&#8217;&#233;cart simulation/r&#233;el (via Fortune, mai 2026) ; Figure AI et communiqu&#233;s BMW Group (2023-2026) ; Eurostat / Rexecode, co&#251;ts de la main-d&#8217;&#339;uvre T1 2026 ; TrendForce ; Bloomberg (emploi manufacturier chinois) ; presse sp&#233;cialis&#233;e sur Xiaomi (Changping) et Zeekr (Ningbo), dont le Wall Street Journal ; d&#233;clarations Morgan Stanley, McKinsey et Goldman Sachs sur l&#8217;emploi bancaire ; dossier <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/la-byd-isation">&#171; BYD-isation &#187;</a>.</em></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Toutes nos publications sont gratuites et en Copyleft. Elles peuvent &#234;tre republi&#233;es, int&#233;gralement ou partiellement, aux conditions suivantes :<br>&#8594; respect de l&#8217;intitul&#233; et du contenu<br>(texte, images, notes d&#8217;&#233;diteur ou de traducteur, encadr&#233;s)<br>&#8594;</strong> <strong>indication du ou des auteurs et/ou traducteurs<br>&#8594; lien cliquable vers la source.<br>Toute mon&#233;tisation ou utilisation commerciale de ces publications est exclue et fera l&#8217;objet de poursuites.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Too hot to work: Tokyo legislates, China turns off the lights]]></title><description><![CDATA[From an Asian perspective, heat waves are an industrial variable: they are measured in lost hours, regulated by law, and are now driving efforts to remove workers from the factory floor.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/too-hot-to-work-tokyo-legislates</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/too-hot-to-work-tokyo-legislates</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 15 Jul 2026 18:00:49 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/zu-hei-zum-arbeiten-tokio-erlasst">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/too-hot-to-work-tokyo-legislates">English</a> - <a href="https://faustotounsi.substack.com/publish/post/207180625">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/trop-chaud-pour-travailler-tokyo">Fran&#231;ais</a><em> </em></p><p><em>Three responses are taking shape &#8212; regulate, reorganise, remove the exposed human. France has explored only the first, and only halfway.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Orange-toned montage showing a helmeted Japanese construction worker bent over by the heat and wiping his face with a towel. On the left, a large temperature gauge points to a very high level; a city skyline, Mount Fuji and construction structures appear in the background, with charts overlaid across the lower part of the image.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Orange-toned montage showing a helmeted Japanese construction worker bent over by the heat and wiping his face with a towel. On the left, a large temperature gauge points to a very high level; a city skyline, Mount Fuji and construction structures appear in the background, with charts overlaid across the lower part of the image." title="Orange-toned montage showing a helmeted Japanese construction worker bent over by the heat and wiping his face with a towel. On the left, a large temperature gauge points to a very high level; a city skyline, Mount Fuji and construction structures appear in the background, with charts overlaid across the lower part of the image." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Under extreme heat, a construction worker wipes his face at a worksite. Rising temperatures are reshaping working conditions and accelerating the search for protective measures, schedule changes and automated solutions. Illustration.</figcaption></figure></div><p>On a hospital construction site in Sakai, in Osaka prefecture, around a hundred workers shuttle between their posts and a break room fitted with portable air conditioners and shaved ice. The company in charge, Konoike Construction, has put in place an arrangement that French vocabulary still struggles to name: nine consecutive days off per month from July to September, made up by working Saturdays from October, when temperatures ease. One of the group&#8217;s executives gives the reason plainly: in summer, productivity collapses and the accident rate climbs. In 2025, the number of workers suffering heatstroke on the group&#8217;s sites doubled.</p><p>What the <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/spotlight/datawatch/tokyo-becomes-as-hot-humid-as-cities-in-southeast-asia">Nikkei Asia Datawatch of 12 July</a> describes, and where this scene comes from, goes beyond a climatic anecdote. Konoike is not managing a weather hazard: it is managing a recurring cost line, with the instruments of production &#8212; calendar, hours, output. That is the shift summed up by an analyst quoted in the article, in a phrase that amounts to a programme: moving &#8220;from cooling people to cutting the time people are exposed to heat.&#8221; The worker is no longer cooled. The day is reorganised around the heat.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OKcA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a81f2a-b79d-400c-bc95-e1bf5194ff22_1500x720.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OKcA!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a81f2a-b79d-400c-bc95-e1bf5194ff22_1500x720.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OKcA!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a81f2a-b79d-400c-bc95-e1bf5194ff22_1500x720.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OKcA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a81f2a-b79d-400c-bc95-e1bf5194ff22_1500x720.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OKcA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a81f2a-b79d-400c-bc95-e1bf5194ff22_1500x720.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OKcA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a81f2a-b79d-400c-bc95-e1bf5194ff22_1500x720.png" width="1456" height="699" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/29a81f2a-b79d-400c-bc95-e1bf5194ff22_1500x720.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:699,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:87919,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Dark illustration: an automated factory lit by a single light band, with robotic arms on a line and no workers. At right, at dusk, a house with a lit window, an air-conditioning unit and a human figure; a red line links the factory to the person.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207179430?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a81f2a-b79d-400c-bc95-e1bf5194ff22_1500x720.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Dark illustration: an automated factory lit by a single light band, with robotic arms on a line and no workers. At right, at dusk, a house with a lit window, an air-conditioning unit and a human figure; a red line links the factory to the person." title="Dark illustration: an automated factory lit by a single light band, with robotic arms on a line and no workers. At right, at dusk, a house with a lit window, an air-conditioning unit and a human figure; a red line links the factory to the person." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OKcA!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a81f2a-b79d-400c-bc95-e1bf5194ff22_1500x720.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OKcA!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a81f2a-b79d-400c-bc95-e1bf5194ff22_1500x720.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OKcA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a81f2a-b79d-400c-bc95-e1bf5194ff22_1500x720.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OKcA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a81f2a-b79d-400c-bc95-e1bf5194ff22_1500x720.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The human is removed from the workshop rather than cooled, and sent home &#8212; to the air conditioning, for those who have it.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Konoike had started with individual gear, including clothing with built-in fans. Nikkei notes that such measures only go so far, which is what pushed the group to touch the hours. Meanwhile, the fan-cooled vest was changing markets. In early June, the same paper reported that discount chain <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/business/retail/japan-s-don-quijote-to-sell-fan-cooled-clothes-to-beat-hot-summer">Don Quijote was launching a consumer range of fan-cooled vests, hats and blankets</a> &#8212; a Reebok vest with two fans at 9,899 yen, about sixty dollars, aimed, the retailer says, at families who had never worn air-conditioned clothing. Until now those vests kitted out construction workers. Site equipment becomes a shelf item.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png" width="1005" height="752" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:752,&quot;width&quot;:1005,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;In a Japanese store display, a black sleeveless Reebok vest is shown from the back with two small circular fans built into the lower part of the garment. A black jacket hangs beside it, surrounded by signs and labels in Japanese.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="In a Japanese store display, a black sleeveless Reebok vest is shown from the back with two small circular fans built into the lower part of the garment. A black jacket hangs beside it, surrounded by signs and labels in Japanese." title="In a Japanese store display, a black sleeveless Reebok vest is shown from the back with two small circular fans built into the lower part of the garment. A black jacket hangs beside it, surrounded by signs and labels in Japanese." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">At a Don Quijote store in Japan, a Reebok vest fitted with two built-in fans illustrates how cooling workwear is moving from construction sites into the consumer market.</figcaption></figure></div><p>In France, the same data stays locked in an entirely different register. Since late May 2026, the country has lived under a succession of heatwaves. The month swung from one regime to the other in ten days: frost and snow at 1,200 metres in mid-May &#8212; one of the coolest such spells since 1945 for the season &#8212; then the earliest heatwave ever observed, with 26 May the hottest May day ever measured. Public debate, for its part, produces what it always produces: plans, alert maps, features on fans out of stock. Heat there is a matter of public health and summer commentary. It is almost never posed as what it is becoming elsewhere &#8212; an industrial parameter, quantified, regulated, and soon automated.</p><h2>Tokyo has joined Singapore</h2><p>Nikkei&#8217;s starting point is a measured fact. Using data from the USA&#8217;s NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) over the 2020-2025 period, the paper compared urban climates and found that the July-August peaks of temperature and humidity in Tokyo now approach those of Bangkok and Singapore. The readings clearly exceed those of the 2000s and 2010s. The word used is &#8220;tropicalisation&#8221; of the Japanese capital. In April 2026, the country&#8217;s meteorological agency coined another word, <em>kokushobi</em>, for days above 40 degrees Celsius.</p><p>The image is striking because it overturns the usual mental geography: the temperate megacity tips into the hot, humid cloud of Southeast Asian cities. But the article&#8217;s interest lies in what follows, in what the Japanese draw from this observation. A country that admits its tropicalisation draws consequences from it for the organisation of work. That is the shift the French reader should watch closely, because they are living through it with a few years&#8217; delay.</p><h2>The data is a rear-view mirror</h2><p>The article rests on an estimate that has become a reference: the Lancet Countdown, which combines labour intensity and sectoral headcounts to approximate the hours lost to extreme heat. For Japan as a whole, this total is said to exceed 2.8 billion hours a year, roughly double the average of the 2010s. Per person, that comes to 43 hours lost per capita in 2024, more than five working days. China, with its huge agricultural and construction workforce, is given at 96 hours per worker &#8212; a different basis of calculation, therefore not superimposable, but a signal pointing the same way. In all, global economic losses attributed to extreme heat are said to have reached one trillion dollars in 2024.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADeL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b4cd416-067c-4305-b55b-fe773e1f4615_3754x2588.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADeL!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b4cd416-067c-4305-b55b-fe773e1f4615_3754x2588.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADeL!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b4cd416-067c-4305-b55b-fe773e1f4615_3754x2588.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADeL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b4cd416-067c-4305-b55b-fe773e1f4615_3754x2588.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADeL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b4cd416-067c-4305-b55b-fe773e1f4615_3754x2588.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADeL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b4cd416-067c-4305-b55b-fe773e1f4615_3754x2588.png" width="1456" height="1004" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0b4cd416-067c-4305-b55b-fe773e1f4615_3754x2588.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1004,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:216645,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Dumbbell chart of hours lost per capita in the 2000s, 2010s and 2024: China &#8776; 96, Japan &#8776; 43 (doubled since the 2010s), South Korea &#8776; 38, United States &#8776; 20, Spain &#8776; 9, France &#8776; 3, United Kingdom &#8776; 3. France, highlighted, is nearly flat; an arrow marks summer 2026 as beyond the data.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207179430?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b4cd416-067c-4305-b55b-fe773e1f4615_3754x2588.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Dumbbell chart of hours lost per capita in the 2000s, 2010s and 2024: China &#8776; 96, Japan &#8776; 43 (doubled since the 2010s), South Korea &#8776; 38, United States &#8776; 20, Spain &#8776; 9, France &#8776; 3, United Kingdom &#8776; 3. France, highlighted, is nearly flat; an arrow marks summer 2026 as beyond the data." title="Dumbbell chart of hours lost per capita in the 2000s, 2010s and 2024: China &#8776; 96, Japan &#8776; 43 (doubled since the 2010s), South Korea &#8776; 38, United States &#8776; 20, Spain &#8776; 9, France &#8776; 3, United Kingdom &#8776; 3. France, highlighted, is nearly flat; an arrow marks summer 2026 as beyond the data." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADeL!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b4cd416-067c-4305-b55b-fe773e1f4615_3754x2588.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADeL!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b4cd416-067c-4305-b55b-fe773e1f4615_3754x2588.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADeL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b4cd416-067c-4305-b55b-fe773e1f4615_3754x2588.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADeL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b4cd416-067c-4305-b55b-fe773e1f4615_3754x2588.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Working hours lost to heat, per capita (Lancet Countdown, through 2024). France appears lowest &#8212; but the data stops before the record heatwaves of 2026.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Two cautions are in order, and they serve the analysis more than they weaken it.</p><p>The first concerns the nature of the figure: a modelled estimate, not a measurement. The &#8220;2.8 billion&#8221; that Nikkei rounds appears elsewhere with two decimals &#8212; 2,890.82 million hours. That false precision on a modelled figure is a habit to be wary of. Keep the order of magnitude, not the decimal point.</p><p>The second is more decisive. On that same metric, France appears right at the bottom of the ranking, around two to three hours lost per capita, more or less stable since the 2000s. A hurried French reader might conclude the country is spared. They would be wrong, for two reasons.</p><p>First, the data stops in 2024. It therefore ignores the entire 2026 sequence: a first heatwave from 21 to 30 May, the first heatwave alert ever issued in May since the canicule was integrated into the alert system in 2004; a second from 17 to 30 June, described by M&#233;t&#233;o-France as the most intense ever observed in mainland France and Corsica, stronger still than August 2003 although it came earlier in the season, with 24 and 25 June the hottest days ever recorded nationally; a third wave, starting in Spain and Portugal, still under way in mid-July. Spring 2026 was the hottest ever measured in France since records began in 1900. The French point on the chart describes a country that no longer exists.</p><p>Second, that national per-capita average, weighted by headcounts, dilutes the genuinely exposed trades &#8212; construction, agriculture, logistics &#8212; within a heavily service-based economy. The bricklayer in N&#238;mes and the farm worker in the Vaucluse vanish into the national aggregate. M&#233;t&#233;o-France makes the point through another indicator: more than half of the heatwaves recorded in France since 1947 have occurred after 2010. As many in fifteen years as in sixty. France today sits roughly where Japan sat twenty years ago, just before its curve doubled. The low figure is the state of things before.</p><h2>France has legislated, in relative silence</h2><p>A tempting shortcut has to be corrected here. Listening to the debate, one might believe France merely comments on the heat while others act. That is inaccurate. Decree no. 2025-482 of 27 May 2025, applicable from 1 July 2025, introduced for the first time into the Labour Code a formal obligation to prevent heat risk. The text requires every employer, public and private, to assess the risk, adapt the organisation of work and working hours, provide cool drinking water, adapt workstations, and grade its measures according to M&#233;t&#233;o-France&#8217;s yellow, orange and red alert thresholds. It applies indoors as well as outdoors, and to all sectors, from the building site to the poorly ventilated office.</p><p>The timing has its irony: from the day it took effect, the decree applied in the middle of a heatwave &#8212; the fiftieth since 1947, 19 June to 4 July 2025, sixteen days long. The record 2026 waves came a year later, stronger still.</p><p>France therefore has a framework. What is missing is not the law. According to a media-monitoring survey, the words &#8220;heatwave&#8221; and &#8220;air conditioning&#8221; have never been used as much in the French press as in June 2026. The country talks about heat at length, and it has legislated. The gap with Japan sits elsewhere, in two finer folds.</p><h2>An obligation of means is not a threshold</h2><p>The first fold is legal. The French decree is an obligation of means: the employer must assess and adapt, and the employee retains a right of withdrawal judged case by case. The Labour Code sets no legal maximum temperature forcing a stoppage. The responsibility for drawing the line falls, in practice, on the employer and the judge.</p><p>Other countries have chosen the hard threshold. Since 2021 Qatar has banned outdoor work between 10 a.m. and 3:30 p.m. in summer, and suspends it at any hour once the WBGT index &#8212; which factors in humidity and radiation &#8212; exceeds a ceiling. Spain introduced rules for outdoor work in high heat in 2023. Since 2025 South Korea has required breaks indexed to the temperature actually felt. On one side a cursor left to local judgement, on the other a quantified ban that applies without negotiation. France preferred flexibility. It bears the trade-off: a standard that protects on paper but whose application depends on the good faith and the resources of each employer.</p><h2>The text is outrun by the phenomenon</h2><p>The second fold is more troubling, and this is where Nikkei&#8217;s &#8220;old&#8221; data becomes valuable. Japan too amended its occupational safety regulations in 2025, requiring employers to prevent and treat heatstroke. That same year, it recorded more than 1,800 work-related heat illnesses and deaths, a record for the second consecutive year. The president of the University of Occupational and Environmental Health even reckons the real figure &#8220;would have an extra digit&#8221; if one counted absences of three days or fewer.</p><p>The text exists, and the phenomenon outruns it. That is the warning France should read in the Japanese statistics: the law always arrives behind the curve. The 2025 decree is a starting point, not a finishing line. As summers come to resemble those of Osaka, the obligation of means will show its limits, as it already does in Japan despite a far more binding regulatory culture.</p><p>Faced with this impasse, a third response is emerging, more radical than regulation and than reorganisation. It consists of removing the human from the equation.</p><h2>The radical response: turn off the lights</h2><p>In July 2024, Xiaomi opened near Beijing a &#8220;dark factory&#8221; of around 80,000 square metres that runs 24 hours a day, in the dark, with no worker on the line, driven by an in-house AI system named HyperIMP. Its announced capacity is 10 million high-end smartphones a year &#8212; which works out, averaged over the year, to roughly one device every three seconds, the group&#8217;s communications preferring the more sellable image of one per second. The factory is called &#8220;dark&#8221; because the machines need neither light nor comfort.</p><p>The case is not isolated. According to the International Federation of Robotics, China accounted for 54% of the world&#8217;s industrial-robot installations in 2024, and its operational stock passed two million units. Japan had opened the way as early as the 1990s with Fanuc, whose factories have robots build robots and claim up to 900 hours of production without human intervention.</p><p>The link with heat is direct, and it rests on a few physical facts. A robot does not get heatstroke. A factory with no human does not have to be kept at 25 degrees for anyone&#8217;s comfort &#8212; only the electronics require cooling, far below the tolerance threshold of a body. An automated line runs at night, when the air is cooler and electricity often cheaper. The International Energy Agency estimates that removing infrastructure designed for humans &#8212; lighting, comfort ventilation, canteens, break rooms &#8212; cuts a site&#8217;s energy consumption by 15 to 20%. Heat, which penalises human labour, becomes one more argument in favour of replacing it.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;On the left, a long automated production line manufactures air conditioners inside a dark, blue-lit factory, with yellow robotic arms at work. On the right, a city glows orange beneath a blazing sun, beside a thermometer showing an extremely high temperature.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="On the left, a long automated production line manufactures air conditioners inside a dark, blue-lit factory, with yellow robotic arms at work. On the right, a city glows orange beneath a blazing sun, beside a thermometer showing an extremely high temperature." title="On the left, a long automated production line manufactures air conditioners inside a dark, blue-lit factory, with yellow robotic arms at work. On the right, a city glows orange beneath a blazing sun, beside a thermometer showing an extremely high temperature." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">An automated air-conditioner factory operates in near darkness while, outside, a city swelters under extreme heat. Illustration.</figcaption></figure></div><p>The emblem of this shift is in Zhuhai, in southern China, in a factory belonging to Gree, one of the very largest air-conditioner makers in the world. A field report by Prism News, in May 2026, describes an assembly line some 460 metres long where hundreds of yellow robotic arms work 24 hours a day making air conditioners. According to the company, a factory of that size once employed around ten thousand people; the AI-run version occupies a thousand. Its general manager, Chen Huadong, sees in it &#8220;the future of manufacturing.&#8221; The superlatives the group attaches to the site &#8212; &#8220;largest in the world,&#8221; quantified efficiency gains &#8212; belong to its communications and have not been audited; the essential lies in the scene itself.</p><p>One of the largest makers of cold on the planet thus builds its air conditioners in a factory that has almost no need of cold for its occupants, since it has almost none left. The loop is worth pausing on.</p><p>One nuance is required, to avoid the fantasy of total automation. In 2018, Tesla tried to automate the assembly of its Model 3 to the extreme before backing off, Elon Musk admitting he had &#8220;underestimated humans.&#8221; The final assembly steps still resist robotisation. The factory without humans is not a universal fate. But in electronics and household appliances, sectors at the top of the world robotisation ranking, it is already an industrial reality, and heat accelerates the logic.</p><h2>And the humans?</h2><p>There remains the question this technical elegance leaves open. If the factory goes dark and does without thermal comfort, where does the worker it no longer employs go? They do not leave exposed work by grace of a decree or a WBGT threshold. They leave it by redundancy. And they go home &#8212; to cool off, if they can.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qDOU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6dc2cf4-83a2-4074-aafd-97aedc66c26e_1500x933.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qDOU!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6dc2cf4-83a2-4074-aafd-97aedc66c26e_1500x933.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qDOU!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6dc2cf4-83a2-4074-aafd-97aedc66c26e_1500x933.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qDOU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6dc2cf4-83a2-4074-aafd-97aedc66c26e_1500x933.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qDOU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6dc2cf4-83a2-4074-aafd-97aedc66c26e_1500x933.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qDOU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6dc2cf4-83a2-4074-aafd-97aedc66c26e_1500x933.png" width="1456" height="906" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c6dc2cf4-83a2-4074-aafd-97aedc66c26e_1500x933.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:906,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:106103,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Bar chart of the share with air conditioning: Japan/United States 90%, offices (France) 66%, Mediterranean south-east 50%, France overall 24% (highlighted, with an RTE projection of 50% by 2035), Brittany 10%, schools (France) 7%.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207179430?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6dc2cf4-83a2-4074-aafd-97aedc66c26e_1500x933.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Bar chart of the share with air conditioning: Japan/United States 90%, offices (France) 66%, Mediterranean south-east 50%, France overall 24% (highlighted, with an RTE projection of 50% by 2035), Brittany 10%, schools (France) 7%." title="Bar chart of the share with air conditioning: Japan/United States 90%, offices (France) 66%, Mediterranean south-east 50%, France overall 24% (highlighted, with an RTE projection of 50% by 2035), Brittany 10%, schools (France) 7%." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qDOU!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6dc2cf4-83a2-4074-aafd-97aedc66c26e_1500x933.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qDOU!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6dc2cf4-83a2-4074-aafd-97aedc66c26e_1500x933.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qDOU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6dc2cf4-83a2-4074-aafd-97aedc66c26e_1500x933.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qDOU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6dc2cf4-83a2-4074-aafd-97aedc66c26e_1500x933.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Share equipped with air conditioning: the French average (&#8776; 24%) hides wide gaps &#8212; offices 66%, south-east 50%, Brittany 10%, schools 7%; Japan/US &gt; 90%.</figcaption></figure></div><p>This is where heat stops being an industrial abstraction and becomes a very concrete social question again. In France, the share of households with air conditioning stands at around 24 to 25%, rising fast: ADEME sees it go from 18 to 24% between 2023 and 2025. But the average hides a divide. Nearly one home in two is air-conditioned in the Mediterranean south-east, against barely one in ten in Brittany. A fixed installation costs &#8364;1,500 to &#8364;4,000, out of reach for many modest households, who fall back on the fan or the mobile air conditioner. Two-thirds of French offices are air-conditioned; 7% of schools are. Thermal comfort is distributed by income, region and status.</p><p>The contrast with Asia lights up the paradox. In Japan and the USA, more than 90% of homes are air-conditioned. Japan tropicalises its cities, switches off its factories, and cools its homes almost universally. China automates at forced march while producing the air conditioners that will equip the planet. France, for its part, is discovering both heat at work and domestic air conditioning at once, with the lateness and the inequalities of one who was not prepared for it.</p><p>And this individual response has a collective cost. &#8220;Turning off the lights&#8221; does not cut the electricity bill: a dark factory consumes, and so does a nation that air-conditions itself. RTE anticipates that one French home in two will be air-conditioned by 2035. The International Energy Agency notes that air conditioning already represents about 10% of global electricity consumption, and could triple by 2050. The hotter it gets, the more people air-condition; the more they air-condition, the more they heat the outside and strain the grid. The individual exit through cold feeds the collective problem through heat.</p><h2>Three responses, only one explored</h2><p>Faced with a summer that is becoming a cost line, three paths take shape. Regulate, as France sketched with the 2025 decree, as South Korea and Qatar did more firmly. Reorganise, as Konoike shifts its working days in Osaka. Remove the exposed human, as Xiaomi and Gree switch off the lights in their workshops. All three answer the same physical constraint; they do not have the same winners.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lVQH!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41b95d7b-20ca-4bdd-ae66-9693aa2e3063_1500x1000.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lVQH!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41b95d7b-20ca-4bdd-ae66-9693aa2e3063_1500x1000.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lVQH!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41b95d7b-20ca-4bdd-ae66-9693aa2e3063_1500x1000.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lVQH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41b95d7b-20ca-4bdd-ae66-9693aa2e3063_1500x1000.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lVQH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41b95d7b-20ca-4bdd-ae66-9693aa2e3063_1500x1000.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lVQH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41b95d7b-20ca-4bdd-ae66-9693aa2e3063_1500x1000.png" width="1456" height="971" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/41b95d7b-20ca-4bdd-ae66-9693aa2e3063_1500x1000.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:971,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:171267,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Three-column table comparing three strategies. Regulate (France, 2025 decree; Qatar; South Korea): France halfway engaged. Reorganise (Konoike, Japan): France absent. Remove the exposed human (Xiaomi, Gree): France absent. Each column notes who wins and who loses.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207179430?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41b95d7b-20ca-4bdd-ae66-9693aa2e3063_1500x1000.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Three-column table comparing three strategies. Regulate (France, 2025 decree; Qatar; South Korea): France halfway engaged. Reorganise (Konoike, Japan): France absent. Remove the exposed human (Xiaomi, Gree): France absent. Each column notes who wins and who loses." title="Three-column table comparing three strategies. Regulate (France, 2025 decree; Qatar; South Korea): France halfway engaged. Reorganise (Konoike, Japan): France absent. Remove the exposed human (Xiaomi, Gree): France absent. Each column notes who wins and who loses." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lVQH!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41b95d7b-20ca-4bdd-ae66-9693aa2e3063_1500x1000.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lVQH!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41b95d7b-20ca-4bdd-ae66-9693aa2e3063_1500x1000.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lVQH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41b95d7b-20ca-4bdd-ae66-9693aa2e3063_1500x1000.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lVQH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41b95d7b-20ca-4bdd-ae66-9693aa2e3063_1500x1000.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Three responses to heat at work &#8212; regulate, reorganise, remove the exposed human &#8212; and what each wins and loses. France has explored only the first.</figcaption></figure></div><p>France is at the first, and still in its most flexible version. It treats heat at work as a matter of health and safety, which it is, without yet having thought of it as a variable of competitiveness and organisation, which it also is. Public debate, saturated with temperature records, has not yet posed the questions Nikkei poses coldly: how many working hours lost, at what cost, distributed how, and replaced by what.</p><p>The Japanese data stops in 2024. The French curve, for its part, has just turned upward. While we discuss the fan in front of the frozen bottle, a factory assembles itself somewhere in the dark, with no one to cool &#8212; and the worker it replaced wonders, at home, whether he can afford to be cold.</p><div><hr></div><p><strong>Sources</strong>: &#8220;<a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/spotlight/datawatch/tokyo-becomes-as-hot-humid-as-cities-in-southeast-asia">Tokyo becomes as hot, humid as cities in Southeast Asia</a>,&#8221; Datawatch, Nikkei Asia, 12 July 2026 (lost hours: Lancet Countdown; urban climates: NOAA; heatstroke: Japan&#8217;s Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare). &#8220;<a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/business/retail/japan-s-don-quijote-to-sell-fan-cooled-clothes-to-beat-hot-summer">Japan&#8217;s Don Quijote to sell fan-cooled clothes to beat hot summer</a>,&#8221; Nikkei Asia, 6 June 2026 (fan-cooled vests; <em>kokushobi</em>). Decree no. 2025-482 of 27 May 2025 on the protection of workers against heat-related risks (L&#233;gifrance). M&#233;t&#233;o-France (the 21-30 May and 17-30 June 2026 episodes, record since 1947); La Cha&#238;ne M&#233;t&#233;o / M&#233;t&#233;o Consult (the cool spell of 12-17 May 2026). International Federation of Robotics (world robotisation 2024). Field report by Prism News (Gree factory, Zhuhai), May 2026; the superlatives and quantified efficiency gains attributed to the site come from the communications of Gree / Huawei / China Unicom and are not independently audited. International Energy Agency (energy savings of automated sites; air conditioning&#8217;s share of global electricity consumption). ADEME, RTE (residential air conditioning in France). The estimates of lost hours rest on a modelled method, to be distinguished from a direct measurement.</p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>All our publications are free and Copyleft. They may be republished, in whole or in part, under following conditions:</strong><br><strong>&#8594; keeping the title and content</strong><br><strong>(text, images, editor&#8217;s or translator&#8217;s notes, boxes)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; crediting the author(s) and/or translator(s)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; inserting a clickable link to the source.</strong><br><strong>Any monetization or commercial use of these publications is prohibited and will be subject to legal action.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Trop chaud pour travailler : Tokyo légifère, la Chine éteint la lumière]]></title><description><![CDATA[Vue d&#8217;Asie, la canicule est une variable industrielle : elle se mesure en heures perdues, se r&#233;gule par la loi, et pousse d&#233;sormais &#224; sortir l&#8217;humain de l&#8217;atelier.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/trop-chaud-pour-travailler-tokyo</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/trop-chaud-pour-travailler-tokyo</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 15 Jul 2026 18:00:47 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/zu-hei-zum-arbeiten-tokio-erlasst">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/too-hot-to-work-tokyo-legislates">English</a> - <a href="https://faustotounsi.substack.com/publish/post/207180625">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/trop-chaud-pour-travailler-tokyo">Fran&#231;ais</a><em> </em></p><p><em>Trois r&#233;ponses se dessinent &#8212; r&#233;guler, r&#233;organiser, supprimer l&#8217;humain expos&#233;. La France n&#8217;a explor&#233; que la premi&#232;re, et seulement &#224; moiti&#233;.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2070063,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Montage aux tons orange montrant un ouvrier de chantier japonais, casqu&#233; et pench&#233; sous la chaleur, qui s&#8217;essuie le visage avec une serviette. &#192; gauche, une grande jauge de temp&#233;rature indique un niveau tr&#232;s &#233;lev&#233; ; &#224; l&#8217;arri&#232;re-plan apparaissent une ville, le mont Fuji et des structures de chantier, avec des graphiques superpos&#233;s dans la partie basse.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/206796832?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Montage aux tons orange montrant un ouvrier de chantier japonais, casqu&#233; et pench&#233; sous la chaleur, qui s&#8217;essuie le visage avec une serviette. &#192; gauche, une grande jauge de temp&#233;rature indique un niveau tr&#232;s &#233;lev&#233; ; &#224; l&#8217;arri&#232;re-plan apparaissent une ville, le mont Fuji et des structures de chantier, avec des graphiques superpos&#233;s dans la partie basse." title="Montage aux tons orange montrant un ouvrier de chantier japonais, casqu&#233; et pench&#233; sous la chaleur, qui s&#8217;essuie le visage avec une serviette. &#192; gauche, une grande jauge de temp&#233;rature indique un niveau tr&#232;s &#233;lev&#233; ; &#224; l&#8217;arri&#232;re-plan apparaissent une ville, le mont Fuji et des structures de chantier, avec des graphiques superpos&#233;s dans la partie basse." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ztiy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5d7ecf2-a6d4-4650-be4a-bf73b5a45dba_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Sous une chaleur extr&#234;me, un ouvrier  s&#8217;essuie le visage sur un chantier. La hausse des temp&#233;ratures transforme les conditions de travail et acc&#233;l&#232;re la recherche de protections, d&#8217;am&#233;nagements et de solutions automatis&#233;es. Illustration.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Sur un chantier hospitalier de Sakai, dans la pr&#233;fecture d&#8217;Osaka, une centaine d&#8217;ouvriers font la navette entre leurs postes et une salle de repos &#233;quip&#233;e de climatiseurs portatifs et de glace pil&#233;e. L&#8217;entreprise responsable, Konoike Construction, a mis en place un protocole que le vocabulaire fran&#231;ais peine encore &#224; nommer : neuf jours de repos cons&#233;cutifs par mois de juillet &#224; septembre, rattrap&#233;s par du travail le samedi &#224; partir d&#8217;octobre, quand les temp&#233;ratures redescendent. Un dirigeant du groupe en donne la raison sans d&#233;tour : l&#8217;&#233;t&#233;, la productivit&#233; s&#8217;effondre et le taux d&#8217;accidents grimpe. En 2025, le nombre d&#8217;ouvriers victimes de coup de chaleur sur les chantiers du groupe a doubl&#233;.</p><p>Ce que raconte le <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/spotlight/datawatch/tokyo-becomes-as-hot-humid-as-cities-in-southeast-asia">Datawatch de Nikkei Asia du 12 juillet</a>, d&#8217;o&#249; provient cette sc&#232;ne, d&#233;passe l&#8217;anecdote climatique. Konoike ne g&#232;re pas un al&#233;a m&#233;t&#233;o : elle g&#232;re un poste de co&#251;t r&#233;current, avec les instruments de la production &#8212; calendrier, horaires, rendement. C&#8217;est le d&#233;placement que r&#233;sume un analyste cit&#233; dans l&#8217;article, en une formule qui vaut programme : passer &#171; du refroidissement des personnes &#224; la r&#233;duction du temps d&#8217;exposition &#187;. On ne climatise plus l&#8217;ouvrier. On r&#233;organise la journ&#233;e autour de la chaleur.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zhvd!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F73d564f5-61f3-4244-8626-12dd4fe5f7f5_1500x700.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zhvd!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F73d564f5-61f3-4244-8626-12dd4fe5f7f5_1500x700.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zhvd!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F73d564f5-61f3-4244-8626-12dd4fe5f7f5_1500x700.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zhvd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F73d564f5-61f3-4244-8626-12dd4fe5f7f5_1500x700.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zhvd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F73d564f5-61f3-4244-8626-12dd4fe5f7f5_1500x700.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zhvd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F73d564f5-61f3-4244-8626-12dd4fe5f7f5_1500x700.png" width="1456" height="679" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/73d564f5-61f3-4244-8626-12dd4fe5f7f5_1500x700.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:679,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:76747,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Illustration sombre : une usine automatis&#233;e &#233;clair&#233;e par une seule bande lumineuse, avec des bras robotis&#233;s sur une cha&#238;ne et aucun ouvrier. &#192; droite, au cr&#233;puscule, une maison &#224; la fen&#234;tre &#233;clair&#233;e avec un climatiseur et une silhouette humaine ; un trait rouge relie l'usine &#224; la personne.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/206796832?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F73d564f5-61f3-4244-8626-12dd4fe5f7f5_1500x700.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Illustration sombre : une usine automatis&#233;e &#233;clair&#233;e par une seule bande lumineuse, avec des bras robotis&#233;s sur une cha&#238;ne et aucun ouvrier. &#192; droite, au cr&#233;puscule, une maison &#224; la fen&#234;tre &#233;clair&#233;e avec un climatiseur et une silhouette humaine ; un trait rouge relie l'usine &#224; la personne." title="Illustration sombre : une usine automatis&#233;e &#233;clair&#233;e par une seule bande lumineuse, avec des bras robotis&#233;s sur une cha&#238;ne et aucun ouvrier. &#192; droite, au cr&#233;puscule, une maison &#224; la fen&#234;tre &#233;clair&#233;e avec un climatiseur et une silhouette humaine ; un trait rouge relie l'usine &#224; la personne." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zhvd!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F73d564f5-61f3-4244-8626-12dd4fe5f7f5_1500x700.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zhvd!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F73d564f5-61f3-4244-8626-12dd4fe5f7f5_1500x700.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zhvd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F73d564f5-61f3-4244-8626-12dd4fe5f7f5_1500x700.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zhvd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F73d564f5-61f3-4244-8626-12dd4fe5f7f5_1500x700.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">On sort l&#8217;humain de l&#8217;atelier plut&#244;t que de le rafra&#238;chir ; il rentre chez lui, devant sa climatisation &#8212; s&#8217;il en a une.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Konoike avait commenc&#233; par l&#8217;&#233;quipement individuel, dont des v&#234;tements &#224; ventilateurs int&#233;gr&#233;s. Nikkei constate que ce type de mesure ne va pas loin, ce qui a conduit le groupe &#224; toucher aux horaires. Pendant ce temps, le gilet ventil&#233; changeait de march&#233;. D&#233;but juin, le m&#234;me journal rapportait que la cha&#238;ne de discount <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/business/retail/japan-s-don-quijote-to-sell-fan-cooled-clothes-to-beat-hot-summer">Don Quijote lan&#231;ait une gamme grand public de gilets, chapeaux et couvertures &#224; ventilateurs</a> &#8212; un gilet Reebok &#224; deux ventilateurs vendu 9 899 yens, un peu plus de 50 euros, destin&#233; selon l&#8217;enseigne aux familles n&#8217;ayant jamais port&#233; de v&#234;tement climatis&#233;. Ces gilets &#233;quipaient jusque-l&#224; les ouvriers du b&#226;timent. L&#8217;&#233;quipement de chantier devient un article de rayon.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png" width="1005" height="752" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:752,&quot;width&quot;:1005,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1292748,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Dans un rayon de magasin japonais, un gilet noir sans manches de marque Reebok est pr&#233;sent&#233; de dos, avec deux petits ventilateurs circulaires int&#233;gr&#233;s au bas du v&#234;tement. Une veste noire est suspendue &#224; c&#244;t&#233;, au milieu d&#8217;&#233;tiquettes et d&#8217;affiches en japonais.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/206796832?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Dans un rayon de magasin japonais, un gilet noir sans manches de marque Reebok est pr&#233;sent&#233; de dos, avec deux petits ventilateurs circulaires int&#233;gr&#233;s au bas du v&#234;tement. Une veste noire est suspendue &#224; c&#244;t&#233;, au milieu d&#8217;&#233;tiquettes et d&#8217;affiches en japonais." title="Dans un rayon de magasin japonais, un gilet noir sans manches de marque Reebok est pr&#233;sent&#233; de dos, avec deux petits ventilateurs circulaires int&#233;gr&#233;s au bas du v&#234;tement. Une veste noire est suspendue &#224; c&#244;t&#233;, au milieu d&#8217;&#233;tiquettes et d&#8217;affiches en japonais." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZvMS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa9da1d41-d1f6-4e8b-bd6b-17d59b2873bc_1005x752.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Dans un magasin Don Quijote au Japon, un gilet Reebok muni de deux ventilateurs int&#233;gr&#233;s illustre le passage du v&#234;tement rafra&#238;chissant de l&#8217;&#233;quipement de chantier au produit grand public.</figcaption></figure></div><p>En France, la m&#234;me donn&#233;e reste enferm&#233;e dans un tout autre registre. Depuis fin mai 2026, le pays vit sous une succession de canicules. Le mois a bascul&#233; d&#8217;un r&#233;gime &#224; l&#8217;autre en dix jours : gel&#233;es et neige &#224; 1 200 m&#232;tres &#224; la mi-mai &#8212; l&#8217;une des p&#233;riodes les plus fra&#238;ches depuis 1945 pour la saison &#8212;, puis la canicule la plus pr&#233;coce jamais observ&#233;e, avec le 26 mai comme journ&#233;e de mai la plus chaude jamais mesur&#233;e. Le d&#233;bat public, lui, produit ce qu&#8217;il produit toujours : des plans, des cartes de vigilance, des reportages sur les ventilateurs en rupture de stock. La chaleur y est un sujet de sant&#233; publique et de commentaire estival. Elle n&#8217;y est presque jamais pos&#233;e comme ce qu&#8217;elle devient ailleurs &#8212; un param&#232;tre industriel, chiffr&#233;, r&#233;gul&#233;, et bient&#244;t automatis&#233;.</p><h2>Tokyo a rejoint Singapour</h2><p>Le point de d&#233;part de Nikkei est un fait mesur&#233;. &#192; partir des donn&#233;es de la NOAA usam&#233;ricaine [Agence nationale d&#8217;observation oc&#233;anique et atmosph&#233;rique] sur la p&#233;riode 2020-2025, le journal a compar&#233; les climats urbains et constat&#233; que les pics de temp&#233;rature et d&#8217;humidit&#233; de juillet-ao&#251;t &#224; Tokyo se rapprochent d&#233;sormais de ceux de Bangkok et de Singapour. Les relev&#233;s d&#233;passent nettement ceux des ann&#233;es 2000 et 2010. Le terme employ&#233; est &#171; tropicalisation &#187; de la capitale japonaise. En avril 2026, l&#8217;agence m&#233;t&#233;orologique du pays a forg&#233; un autre mot, <em>kokushobi</em>, pour d&#233;signer les journ&#233;es d&#233;passant 40 &#176;C.</p><p>L&#8217;image est spectaculaire parce qu&#8217;elle renverse la g&#233;ographie mentale habituelle : la m&#233;gapole temp&#233;r&#233;e bascule dans le nuage chaud et humide des villes du Sud-Est asiatique. Mais l&#8217;int&#233;r&#234;t de l&#8217;article tient &#224; la suite, &#224; ce que les Japonais tirent de ce constat. Car un pays qui admet sa tropicalisation en tire des cons&#233;quences sur l&#8217;organisation du travail. C&#8217;est cette bascule que le lecteur fran&#231;ais devrait observer de pr&#232;s, parce qu&#8217;il est en train de la vivre avec quelques ann&#233;es de retard.</p><h2>La donn&#233;e est un r&#233;troviseur</h2><p>L&#8217;article s&#8217;appuie sur une estimation devenue r&#233;f&#233;rence : le Lancet Countdown, qui croise intensit&#233; du travail et effectifs par secteur pour approcher les heures perdues &#224; cause de la chaleur extr&#234;me. &#192; l&#8217;&#233;chelle du Japon, ce total d&#233;passerait 2,8 milliards d&#8217;heures par an, environ le double de la moyenne des ann&#233;es 2010. Rapport&#233; &#224; l&#8217;individu, cela fait 43 heures perdues par habitant en 2024, plus de cinq journ&#233;es de travail. La Chine, dont la population agricole et le BTP sont massifs, est donn&#233;e &#224; 96 heures par travailleur &#8212; une base de calcul diff&#233;rente, donc non superposable, mais un signal qui va dans le m&#234;me sens. Au total, les pertes &#233;conomiques mondiales imput&#233;es &#224; la chaleur extr&#234;me atteindraient 1 000 milliards de dollars en 2024.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdwf!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad3a227e-ea6c-485c-9a8b-d2935ccf0a28_3754x2588.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdwf!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad3a227e-ea6c-485c-9a8b-d2935ccf0a28_3754x2588.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdwf!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad3a227e-ea6c-485c-9a8b-d2935ccf0a28_3754x2588.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdwf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad3a227e-ea6c-485c-9a8b-d2935ccf0a28_3754x2588.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdwf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad3a227e-ea6c-485c-9a8b-d2935ccf0a28_3754x2588.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdwf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad3a227e-ea6c-485c-9a8b-d2935ccf0a28_3754x2588.png" width="1456" height="1004" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ad3a227e-ea6c-485c-9a8b-d2935ccf0a28_3754x2588.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1004,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:215787,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Graphique en halt&#232;res des heures perdues par habitant aux ann&#233;es 2000, 2010 et en 2024 : Chine &#8776; 96, Japon &#8776; 43 (doubl&#233; depuis 2010), Cor&#233;e du Sud &#8776; 38, &#201;tats-Unis &#8776; 20, Espagne &#8776; 9, France &#8776; 3, Royaume-Uni &#8776; 3. La France, surlign&#233;e, est quasi stable ; une fl&#232;che marque l'&#233;t&#233; 2026 comme hors des donn&#233;es.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/206796832?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad3a227e-ea6c-485c-9a8b-d2935ccf0a28_3754x2588.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Graphique en halt&#232;res des heures perdues par habitant aux ann&#233;es 2000, 2010 et en 2024 : Chine &#8776; 96, Japon &#8776; 43 (doubl&#233; depuis 2010), Cor&#233;e du Sud &#8776; 38, &#201;tats-Unis &#8776; 20, Espagne &#8776; 9, France &#8776; 3, Royaume-Uni &#8776; 3. La France, surlign&#233;e, est quasi stable ; une fl&#232;che marque l'&#233;t&#233; 2026 comme hors des donn&#233;es." title="Graphique en halt&#232;res des heures perdues par habitant aux ann&#233;es 2000, 2010 et en 2024 : Chine &#8776; 96, Japon &#8776; 43 (doubl&#233; depuis 2010), Cor&#233;e du Sud &#8776; 38, &#201;tats-Unis &#8776; 20, Espagne &#8776; 9, France &#8776; 3, Royaume-Uni &#8776; 3. La France, surlign&#233;e, est quasi stable ; une fl&#232;che marque l'&#233;t&#233; 2026 comme hors des donn&#233;es." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdwf!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad3a227e-ea6c-485c-9a8b-d2935ccf0a28_3754x2588.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdwf!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad3a227e-ea6c-485c-9a8b-d2935ccf0a28_3754x2588.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdwf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad3a227e-ea6c-485c-9a8b-d2935ccf0a28_3754x2588.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdwf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad3a227e-ea6c-485c-9a8b-d2935ccf0a28_3754x2588.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Heures de travail perdues &#224; cause de la chaleur, par habitant (Lancet Countdown, jusqu&#8217;en 2024). La France appara&#238;t au plus bas &#8212; mais la donn&#233;e s&#8217;arr&#234;te avant les canicules record de 2026.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Deux pr&#233;cautions s&#8217;imposent, et elles servent l&#8217;analyse plus qu&#8217;elles ne l&#8217;affaiblissent.</p><p>La premi&#232;re tient &#224; la nature du chiffre : une estimation mod&#233;lis&#233;e, non une mesure. Le &#171; 2,8 milliards &#187; que Nikkei arrondit appara&#238;t ailleurs avec deux d&#233;cimales &#8212; 2 890,82 millions d&#8217;heures. Cette fausse pr&#233;cision sur une donn&#233;e mod&#233;lis&#233;e est un travers dont il faut se m&#233;fier. On retiendra l&#8217;ordre de grandeur, pas la virgule.</p><p>La seconde est plus d&#233;cisive. Sur cette m&#234;me m&#233;trique, la France appara&#238;t tout en bas du classement, autour de deux &#224; trois heures perdues par habitant, &#224; peu pr&#232;s stable depuis les ann&#233;es 2000. Un Fran&#231;ais press&#233; pourrait en conclure que le pays est &#233;pargn&#233;. Il se tromperait, pour deux raisons.</p><p>D&#8217;abord, la donn&#233;e s&#8217;arr&#234;te en 2024. Elle ignore donc enti&#232;rement la s&#233;quence de 2026 : une premi&#232;re canicule du 21 au 30 mai, premi&#232;re Vigilance canicule jamais d&#233;clench&#233;e en mai depuis l&#8217;int&#233;gration de la canicule au dispositif en 2004 ; une deuxi&#232;me du 17 au 30 juin, que M&#233;t&#233;o-France d&#233;crit comme la plus intense jamais observ&#233;e en France hexagonale et en Corse, plus forte encore qu&#8217;ao&#251;t 2003 bien que survenue plus t&#244;t dans la saison, avec les 24 et 25 juin comme journ&#233;es les plus chaudes jamais enregistr&#233;es &#224; l&#8217;&#233;chelle nationale ; une troisi&#232;me vague, partie d&#8217;Espagne et du Portugal, encore en cours &#224; la mi-juillet. Le printemps 2026 a &#233;t&#233; le plus chaud jamais mesur&#233; en France depuis le d&#233;but des relev&#233;s en 1900. Le point fran&#231;ais du graphique d&#233;crit un pays qui n&#8217;existe d&#233;j&#224; plus.</p><p>Ensuite, cette moyenne nationale par habitant, pond&#233;r&#233;e par les effectifs, dilue les m&#233;tiers r&#233;ellement expos&#233;s &#8212; BTP, agriculture, logistique &#8212; dans une &#233;conomie tr&#232;s tertiaris&#233;e. Le ma&#231;on de N&#238;mes et l&#8217;ouvrier agricole du Vaucluse disparaissent dans l&#8217;agr&#233;gat national. M&#233;t&#233;o-France le rappelle par un autre indicateur : plus de la moiti&#233; des vagues de chaleur recens&#233;es en France depuis 1947 se sont produites apr&#232;s 2010. Autant en quinze ans qu&#8217;en soixante. La France se situe aujourd&#8217;hui &#224; peu pr&#232;s l&#224; o&#249; le Japon se situait il y a vingt ans, juste avant que sa courbe double. Le faible chiffre est l&#8217;&#233;tat d&#8217;avant.</p><h2>La France a l&#233;gif&#233;r&#233;, dans un silence relatif</h2><p>Il faut ici corriger une facilit&#233; tentante. On pourrait croire, &#224; &#233;couter le d&#233;bat, que la France se contente de commenter la chaleur pendant que d&#8217;autres agissent. C&#8217;est inexact. Le d&#233;cret n&#176; 2025-482 du 27 mai 2025, applicable au 1er juillet 2025, a introduit pour la premi&#232;re fois dans le Code du travail une obligation formelle de pr&#233;vention du risque chaleur. Le texte impose &#224; tout employeur, public comme priv&#233;, d&#8217;&#233;valuer le risque, d&#8217;adapter l&#8217;organisation du travail et les horaires, de fournir de l&#8217;eau potable fra&#238;che, d&#8217;am&#233;nager les postes, et de graduer ses mesures selon les seuils de vigilance jaune, orange et rouge de M&#233;t&#233;o-France. Il vaut pour l&#8217;int&#233;rieur comme pour l&#8217;ext&#233;rieur, et pour tous les secteurs, du chantier au bureau mal ventil&#233;.</p><p>Le calendrier a son ironie : d&#232;s son entr&#233;e en vigueur, le d&#233;cret s&#8217;est appliqu&#233; en pleine vague de chaleur &#8212; la cinquanti&#232;me depuis 1947, du 19 juin au 4 juillet 2025, seize jours durant. Les canicules record de 2026 sont venues un an plus tard, plus fortes encore.</p><p>La France dispose donc d&#8217;un cadre. Ce qui manque n&#8217;est pas le droit. Selon une enqu&#234;te de veille m&#233;diatique, les mots &#171; canicule &#187; et &#171; climatisation &#187; n&#8217;ont jamais &#233;t&#233; autant employ&#233;s dans la presse fran&#231;aise qu&#8217;en juin 2026. Le pays parle abondamment de la chaleur, et il a l&#233;gif&#233;r&#233;. Le d&#233;calage avec le Japon se loge ailleurs, dans deux plis plus fins.</p><h2>Une obligation de moyens n&#8217;est pas un seuil</h2><p>Le premier pli est juridique. Le d&#233;cret fran&#231;ais rel&#232;ve de l&#8217;obligation de moyens : l&#8217;employeur doit &#233;valuer et adapter, et le salari&#233; conserve un droit de retrait appr&#233;ci&#233; au cas par cas. Le Code du travail ne fixe aucune temp&#233;rature maximale l&#233;gale imposant l&#8217;arr&#234;t. La responsabilit&#233; de tracer la ligne revient, de fait, &#224; l&#8217;employeur et au juge.</p><p>D&#8217;autres pays ont choisi le seuil dur. Le Qatar interdit depuis 2021 le travail ext&#233;rieur entre 10 heures et 15 h 30 l&#8217;&#233;t&#233;, et le suspend &#224; toute heure d&#232;s que l&#8217;indice WBGT &#8212; qui int&#232;gre l&#8217;humidit&#233; et le rayonnement &#8212; d&#233;passe un plafond. L&#8217;Espagne a introduit des r&#232;gles pour le travail ext&#233;rieur par forte chaleur en 2023. La Cor&#233;e du Sud impose depuis 2025 des pauses index&#233;es sur la temp&#233;rature r&#233;ellement ressentie. D&#8217;un c&#244;t&#233; un curseur laiss&#233; &#224; l&#8217;appr&#233;ciation locale, de l&#8217;autre une interdiction chiffr&#233;e qui s&#8217;impose sans n&#233;gociation. La France a pr&#233;f&#233;r&#233; la souplesse. Elle en assume la contrepartie : une norme qui prot&#232;ge sur le papier mais dont l&#8217;application d&#233;pend de la bonne foi et des moyens de chaque employeur.</p><h2>Le texte est d&#233;bord&#233; par le ph&#233;nom&#232;ne</h2><p>Le second pli est plus d&#233;rangeant, et c&#8217;est l&#224; que la donn&#233;e &#171; ancienne &#187; de Nikkei devient pr&#233;cieuse. Le Japon a lui aussi modifi&#233; en 2025 sa r&#233;glementation sur la s&#233;curit&#233; au travail, obligeant les employeurs &#224; pr&#233;venir et &#224; traiter les coups de chaleur. La m&#234;me ann&#233;e, il a enregistr&#233; plus de 1 800 accidents et d&#233;c&#232;s professionnels li&#233;s &#224; la chaleur, record pour la deuxi&#232;me ann&#233;e cons&#233;cutive. Le pr&#233;sident de l&#8217;Universit&#233; de m&#233;decine du travail et de l&#8217;environnement estime m&#234;me que le chiffre r&#233;el &#171; aurait un z&#233;ro de plus &#187; si l&#8217;on comptait les arr&#234;ts de trois jours ou moins.</p><p>Le texte existe, et le ph&#233;nom&#232;ne le d&#233;borde. Voil&#224; l&#8217;avertissement que la France devrait lire dans les statistiques japonaises : la loi arrive toujours derri&#232;re la courbe. Le d&#233;cret de 2025 est un point de d&#233;part, pas un point d&#8217;arriv&#233;e. &#192; mesure que les &#233;t&#233;s se rapprochent de ceux d&#8217;Osaka, l&#8217;obligation de moyens montrera ses limites, comme elle les montre d&#233;j&#224; au Japon malgr&#233; une culture r&#233;glementaire autrement plus contraignante.</p><p>Face &#224; cette impasse, une troisi&#232;me r&#233;ponse &#233;merge, plus radicale que la r&#233;gulation et que la r&#233;organisation. Elle consiste &#224; retirer l&#8217;humain de l&#8217;&#233;quation.</p><h2>La r&#233;ponse radicale : &#233;teindre la lumi&#232;re</h2><p>En juillet 2024, Xiaomi a inaugur&#233; pr&#232;s de P&#233;kin une &#171; dark factory &#187; d&#8217;environ 80 000 m&#232;tres carr&#233;s qui tourne 24 heures sur 24, dans le noir, sans ouvrier sur la cha&#238;ne, pilot&#233;e par un syst&#232;me d&#8217;IA maison baptis&#233; HyperIMP. Sa capacit&#233; annonc&#233;e est de 10 millions de smartphones haut de gamme par an &#8212; ce qui fait, en moyenne liss&#233;e sur l&#8217;ann&#233;e, un appareil toutes les trois secondes environ, la communication du groupe pr&#233;f&#233;rant l&#8217;image plus vendeuse d&#8217;un par seconde. L&#8217;usine s&#8217;appelle &#171; noire &#187; parce que les machines n&#8217;ont besoin ni de lumi&#232;re ni de confort.</p><p>Le cas n&#8217;est pas isol&#233;. Selon la F&#233;d&#233;ration internationale de robotique, la Chine a repr&#233;sent&#233; 54 % des installations mondiales de robots industriels en 2024, et son parc op&#233;rationnel a d&#233;pass&#233; les deux millions d&#8217;unit&#233;s. Le Japon avait ouvert la voie d&#232;s les ann&#233;es 1990 avec Fanuc, dont les usines font fabriquer des robots par des robots et revendiquent jusqu&#8217;&#224; 900 heures de production sans intervention humaine.</p><p>Le lien avec la chaleur tient en quelques &#233;vidences physiques. Un robot ne fait pas de coup de chaleur. Une usine sans humain n&#8217;a pas &#224; &#234;tre maintenue &#224; 25 degr&#233;s pour le confort de personne &#8212; seule l&#8217;&#233;lectronique demande un refroidissement, tr&#232;s inf&#233;rieur au seuil de tol&#233;rance d&#8217;un corps. Une ligne automatis&#233;e tourne la nuit, quand l&#8217;air est moins chaud et l&#8217;&#233;lectricit&#233; souvent moins ch&#232;re. L&#8217;Agence internationale de l&#8217;&#233;nergie estime que la suppression des infrastructures pens&#233;es pour les humains &#8212; &#233;clairage, ventilation de confort, r&#233;fectoires, salles de repos &#8212; r&#233;duit de 15 &#224; 20 % la consommation d&#8217;&#233;nergie d&#8217;un site. La chaleur, qui p&#233;nalise le travail humain, devient un argument de plus en faveur de son remplacement.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1991510,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&#192; gauche, une longue cha&#238;ne automatis&#233;e fabrique des climatiseurs dans une usine sombre &#233;clair&#233;e de bleu, o&#249; travaillent des bras robotis&#233;s jaunes. &#192; droite, une ville baign&#233;e de lumi&#232;re orange appara&#238;t sous un soleil br&#251;lant, &#224; c&#244;t&#233; d&#8217;un thermom&#232;tre indiquant une temp&#233;rature tr&#232;s &#233;lev&#233;e.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/206796832?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="&#192; gauche, une longue cha&#238;ne automatis&#233;e fabrique des climatiseurs dans une usine sombre &#233;clair&#233;e de bleu, o&#249; travaillent des bras robotis&#233;s jaunes. &#192; droite, une ville baign&#233;e de lumi&#232;re orange appara&#238;t sous un soleil br&#251;lant, &#224; c&#244;t&#233; d&#8217;un thermom&#232;tre indiquant une temp&#233;rature tr&#232;s &#233;lev&#233;e." title="&#192; gauche, une longue cha&#238;ne automatis&#233;e fabrique des climatiseurs dans une usine sombre &#233;clair&#233;e de bleu, o&#249; travaillent des bras robotis&#233;s jaunes. &#192; droite, une ville baign&#233;e de lumi&#232;re orange appara&#238;t sous un soleil br&#251;lant, &#224; c&#244;t&#233; d&#8217;un thermom&#232;tre indiquant une temp&#233;rature tr&#232;s &#233;lev&#233;e." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lYYU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa511eac6-49b3-4210-8b0d-d3cdae0811d3_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Une usine automatis&#233;e de climatiseurs fonctionne presque dans l&#8217;obscurit&#233;, tandis qu&#8217;&#224; l&#8217;ext&#233;rieur une ville &#233;touffe sous une chaleur extr&#234;me. Illustration.</figcaption></figure></div><p>L&#8217;embl&#232;me de ce basculement se trouve &#224; Zhuhai, dans le sud de la Chine, dans une usine de Gree, l&#8217;un des tout premiers fabricants mondiaux de climatiseurs. Un reportage de terrain de Prism News, en mai 2026, y d&#233;crit une ligne d&#8217;assemblage de quelque 460 m&#232;tres o&#249; des centaines de bras robotis&#233;s jaunes travaillent 24 heures sur 24 &#224; fabriquer des climatiseurs. Selon l&#8217;entreprise, une usine de cette taille employait autrefois environ dix mille personnes ; la version pilot&#233;e par l&#8217;IA en occupe un millier. Son directeur g&#233;n&#233;ral, Chen Huadong, y voit &#171; l&#8217;avenir de la production &#187;. Les superlatifs que le groupe accole au site &#8212; usine &#171; la plus grande au monde &#187;, gains d&#8217;efficacit&#233; chiffr&#233;s &#8212; rel&#232;vent de sa communication et n&#8217;ont pas &#233;t&#233; audit&#233;s ; l&#8217;essentiel tient dans la sc&#232;ne elle-m&#234;me.</p><p>L&#8217;un des plus grands faiseurs de froid de la plan&#232;te fabrique donc ses climatiseurs dans une usine qui n&#8217;a presque plus besoin de froid pour ses occupants, puisqu&#8217;elle n&#8217;en compte presque plus. La boucle m&#233;rite qu&#8217;on s&#8217;y arr&#234;te.</p><p>Une nuance s&#8217;impose, pour ne pas c&#233;der au fantasme du tout-automatique. En 2018, Tesla avait tent&#233; d&#8217;automatiser &#224; l&#8217;extr&#234;me l&#8217;assemblage de sa Model 3 avant de reculer, Elon Musk reconnaissant avoir &#171; sous-estim&#233; les humains &#187;. Les derni&#232;res &#233;tapes d&#8217;assemblage r&#233;sistent encore &#224; la robotisation. L&#8217;usine sans humain n&#8217;est pas une fatalit&#233; universelle. Mais dans l&#8217;&#233;lectronique et l&#8217;&#233;lectrom&#233;nager, secteurs qui trustent le haut du classement de la robotisation mondiale, elle est d&#233;j&#224; une r&#233;alit&#233; industrielle, et la chaleur en acc&#233;l&#232;re la logique.</p><h2>Et les humains ?</h2><p>Reste la question que cette &#233;l&#233;gance technique laisse ouverte. Si l&#8217;usine s&#8217;&#233;teint et se passe de confort thermique, o&#249; va l&#8217;ouvrier qu&#8217;elle n&#8217;emploie plus ? Il ne sort pas du travail expos&#233; par la gr&#226;ce d&#8217;un d&#233;cret ou d&#8217;un seuil WBGT. Il en sort par redondance. Et il rentre chez lui &#8212; pour se rafra&#238;chir, s&#8217;il le peut.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kWXe!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F677be383-7028-49d1-b8cd-9adc6a42d799_1500x933.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kWXe!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F677be383-7028-49d1-b8cd-9adc6a42d799_1500x933.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kWXe!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F677be383-7028-49d1-b8cd-9adc6a42d799_1500x933.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kWXe!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F677be383-7028-49d1-b8cd-9adc6a42d799_1500x933.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kWXe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F677be383-7028-49d1-b8cd-9adc6a42d799_1500x933.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kWXe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F677be383-7028-49d1-b8cd-9adc6a42d799_1500x933.png" width="1456" height="906" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/677be383-7028-49d1-b8cd-9adc6a42d799_1500x933.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:906,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:114773,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Diagramme &#224; barres de la part &#233;quip&#233;e en climatisation : Japon/&#201;tats-Unis 90 %, bureaux (France) 66 %, Sud-Est m&#233;diterran&#233;en 50 %, France enti&#232;re 24 % (surlign&#233;e, avec une projection RTE de 50 % en 2035), Bretagne 10 %, &#233;coles (France) 7 %.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/206796832?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F677be383-7028-49d1-b8cd-9adc6a42d799_1500x933.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Diagramme &#224; barres de la part &#233;quip&#233;e en climatisation : Japon/&#201;tats-Unis 90 %, bureaux (France) 66 %, Sud-Est m&#233;diterran&#233;en 50 %, France enti&#232;re 24 % (surlign&#233;e, avec une projection RTE de 50 % en 2035), Bretagne 10 %, &#233;coles (France) 7 %." title="Diagramme &#224; barres de la part &#233;quip&#233;e en climatisation : Japon/&#201;tats-Unis 90 %, bureaux (France) 66 %, Sud-Est m&#233;diterran&#233;en 50 %, France enti&#232;re 24 % (surlign&#233;e, avec une projection RTE de 50 % en 2035), Bretagne 10 %, &#233;coles (France) 7 %." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kWXe!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F677be383-7028-49d1-b8cd-9adc6a42d799_1500x933.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kWXe!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F677be383-7028-49d1-b8cd-9adc6a42d799_1500x933.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kWXe!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F677be383-7028-49d1-b8cd-9adc6a42d799_1500x933.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kWXe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F677be383-7028-49d1-b8cd-9adc6a42d799_1500x933.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Part &#233;quip&#233;e en climatisation : la moyenne fran&#231;aise (&#8776; 24 %) masque de forts &#233;carts &#8212; bureaux 66 %, Sud-Est 50 %, Bretagne 10 %, &#233;coles 7 % ; Japon/USA &gt; 90 %.</figcaption></figure></div><p>C&#8217;est l&#224; que la chaleur cesse d&#8217;&#234;tre une abstraction industrielle pour redevenir une question sociale tr&#232;s concr&#232;te. En France, le taux d&#8217;&#233;quipement des m&#233;nages en climatisation se situe autour de 24 &#224; 25 %, en hausse rapide : l&#8217;ADEME le voit passer de 18 &#224; 24 % entre 2023 et 2025. Mais la moyenne masque une fracture. Pr&#232;s d&#8217;un logement sur deux est climatis&#233; dans le Sud-Est m&#233;diterran&#233;en, contre &#224; peine un sur dix en Bretagne. Une installation fixe co&#251;te de 1 500 &#224; 4 000 euros, hors des moyens de nombreux m&#233;nages modestes, qui se rabattent sur le ventilateur ou le climatiseur mobile. Deux tiers des bureaux fran&#231;ais sont climatis&#233;s ; 7 % des &#233;coles le sont. Le confort thermique se distribue selon le revenu, la r&#233;gion et le statut.</p><p>Au Japon et aux USA, plus de 90 % des foyers sont climatis&#233;s. Le Japon tropicalise ses villes, &#233;teint ses usines, et rafra&#238;chit quasi universellement ses logements. La Chine automatise &#224; marche forc&#233;e tout en produisant les climatiseurs qui &#233;quiperont la plan&#232;te. La France, elle, d&#233;couvre &#224; la fois la chaleur au travail et la climatisation domestique, avec le retard et les in&#233;galit&#233;s de celui qui n&#8217;y &#233;tait pas pr&#233;par&#233;.</p><p>Et cette r&#233;ponse individuelle a un co&#251;t collectif. &#171; &#201;teindre la lumi&#232;re &#187; ne coupe pas la facture &#233;lectrique : une dark factory consomme, et une nation qui se climatise aussi. RTE anticipe qu&#8217;un logement fran&#231;ais sur deux sera climatis&#233; en 2035. L&#8217;Agence internationale de l&#8217;&#233;nergie rappelle que la climatisation repr&#233;sente d&#233;j&#224; environ 10 % de la consommation mondiale d&#8217;&#233;lectricit&#233;, et pourrait tripler d&#8217;ici 2050. Plus il fait chaud, plus on se climatise ; plus on se climatise, plus on chauffe l&#8217;ext&#233;rieur et l&#8217;on sollicite le r&#233;seau. La sortie individuelle par le froid alimente le probl&#232;me collectif par la chaleur.</p><h2>Trois r&#233;ponses, une seule explor&#233;e</h2><p>Face &#224; un &#233;t&#233; qui devient un poste de co&#251;t, trois voies se dessinent. R&#233;guler, comme la France l&#8217;a esquiss&#233; avec le d&#233;cret de 2025, comme la Cor&#233;e et le Qatar l&#8217;ont fait plus durement. R&#233;organiser, comme Konoike d&#233;place ses journ&#233;es de travail &#224; Osaka. Supprimer l&#8217;humain expos&#233;, comme Xiaomi et Gree &#233;teignent la lumi&#232;re de leurs ateliers. Les trois r&#233;pondent &#224; la m&#234;me contrainte physique ; elles n&#8217;ont pas les m&#234;mes gagnants.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XkIo!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff140df7c-d478-4181-ab07-75a826de6e99_1500x1000.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XkIo!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff140df7c-d478-4181-ab07-75a826de6e99_1500x1000.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XkIo!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff140df7c-d478-4181-ab07-75a826de6e99_1500x1000.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XkIo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff140df7c-d478-4181-ab07-75a826de6e99_1500x1000.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XkIo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff140df7c-d478-4181-ab07-75a826de6e99_1500x1000.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XkIo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff140df7c-d478-4181-ab07-75a826de6e99_1500x1000.png" width="1456" height="971" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/f140df7c-d478-4181-ab07-75a826de6e99_1500x1000.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:971,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:188149,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Tableau &#224; trois colonnes comparant trois strat&#233;gies. R&#233;guler (France, d&#233;cret de 2025 ; Qatar ; Cor&#233;e du Sud) : la France y est engag&#233;e &#224; moiti&#233;. R&#233;organiser (Konoike, Japon) : France absente. Supprimer l'humain expos&#233; (Xiaomi, Gree) : France absente. Chaque colonne indique qui gagne et qui perd.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/206796832?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff140df7c-d478-4181-ab07-75a826de6e99_1500x1000.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Tableau &#224; trois colonnes comparant trois strat&#233;gies. R&#233;guler (France, d&#233;cret de 2025 ; Qatar ; Cor&#233;e du Sud) : la France y est engag&#233;e &#224; moiti&#233;. R&#233;organiser (Konoike, Japon) : France absente. Supprimer l'humain expos&#233; (Xiaomi, Gree) : France absente. Chaque colonne indique qui gagne et qui perd." title="Tableau &#224; trois colonnes comparant trois strat&#233;gies. R&#233;guler (France, d&#233;cret de 2025 ; Qatar ; Cor&#233;e du Sud) : la France y est engag&#233;e &#224; moiti&#233;. R&#233;organiser (Konoike, Japon) : France absente. Supprimer l'humain expos&#233; (Xiaomi, Gree) : France absente. Chaque colonne indique qui gagne et qui perd." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XkIo!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff140df7c-d478-4181-ab07-75a826de6e99_1500x1000.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XkIo!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff140df7c-d478-4181-ab07-75a826de6e99_1500x1000.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XkIo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff140df7c-d478-4181-ab07-75a826de6e99_1500x1000.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XkIo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff140df7c-d478-4181-ab07-75a826de6e99_1500x1000.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Trois r&#233;ponses &#224; la chaleur au travail &#8212; r&#233;guler, r&#233;organiser, supprimer l&#8217;humain expos&#233; &#8212; et ce que chacune gagne et perd. La France n&#8217;a explor&#233; que la premi&#232;re.</figcaption></figure></div><p>La France en est &#224; la premi&#232;re r&#233;ponse, et encore dans sa version la plus souple. Elle traite la chaleur au travail comme une affaire de sant&#233; et de s&#233;curit&#233;, ce qu&#8217;elle est, sans l&#8217;avoir encore pens&#233;e comme une variable de comp&#233;titivit&#233; et d&#8217;organisation, ce qu&#8217;elle est aussi. Le d&#233;bat public, satur&#233; de records de temp&#233;rature, n&#8217;a pas encore pos&#233; les questions que Nikkei pose froidement : combien d&#8217;heures de travail perdues, &#224; quel co&#251;t, r&#233;parties comment, et remplac&#233;es par quoi.</p><p>La donn&#233;e japonaise s&#8217;arr&#234;te en 2024. La courbe fran&#231;aise, elle, vient de se redresser. Pendant qu&#8217;on discute du ventilateur devant la bouteille gel&#233;e, une usine s&#8217;assemble quelque part dans le noir, sans personne &#224; rafra&#238;chir &#8212; et l&#8217;ouvrier qu&#8217;elle a remplac&#233; se demande, chez lui, s&#8217;il peut se permettre d&#8217;avoir froid.</p><div><hr></div><p><strong>Sources</strong> : &#171; <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/spotlight/datawatch/tokyo-becomes-as-hot-humid-as-cities-in-southeast-asia">Tokyo becomes as hot, humid as cities in Southeast Asia</a> &#187;, Datawatch, Nikkei Asia, 12 juillet 2026 (heures perdues : Lancet Countdown ; climats urbains : NOAA ; coups de chaleur : minist&#232;re japonais de la Sant&#233;, du Travail et des Affaires sociales). &#171; <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/business/retail/japan-s-don-quijote-to-sell-fan-cooled-clothes-to-beat-hot-summer">Japan&#8217;s Don Quijote to sell fan-cooled clothes to beat hot summer</a> &#187;, Nikkei Asia, 6 juin 2026 (gilets ventil&#233;s ; <em>kokushobi</em>). D&#233;cret n&#176; 2025-482 du 27 mai 2025 relatif &#224; la protection des travailleurs contre les risques li&#233;s &#224; la chaleur (L&#233;gifrance). M&#233;t&#233;o-France (&#233;pisodes du 21 au 30 mai et du 17 au 30 juin 2026, historique depuis 1947) ; La Cha&#238;ne M&#233;t&#233;o / M&#233;t&#233;o Consult (s&#233;quence fra&#238;che du 12 au 17 mai 2026). F&#233;d&#233;ration internationale de robotique (robotisation mondiale 2024). Reportage de terrain de Prism News (usine Gree, Zhuhai), mai 2026 ; les superlatifs et gains d&#8217;efficacit&#233; chiffr&#233;s attribu&#233;s au site proviennent de la communication de Gree / Huawei / China Unicom et ne sont pas audit&#233;s de fa&#231;on ind&#233;pendante. Agence internationale de l&#8217;&#233;nergie (&#233;conomies d&#8217;&#233;nergie des sites automatis&#233;s ; part de la climatisation dans la consommation mondiale d&#8217;&#233;lectricit&#233;). ADEME, RTE (climatisation r&#233;sidentielle en France). Les estimations d&#8217;heures perdues reposent sur une m&#233;thode mod&#233;lis&#233;e, &#224; distinguer d&#8217;une mesure directe.</p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Toutes nos publications sont gratuites et en Copyleft. Elles peuvent &#234;tre republi&#233;es, int&#233;gralement ou partiellement, aux conditions suivantes :<br>&#8594; respect de l&#8217;intitul&#233; et du contenu<br>(texte, images, notes d&#8217;&#233;diteur ou de traducteur, encadr&#233;s)<br>&#8594;</strong> <strong>indication du ou des auteurs et/ou traducteurs<br>&#8594; lien cliquable vers la source.<br>Toute mon&#233;tisation ou utilisation commerciale de ces publications est exclue et fera l&#8217;objet de poursuites.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Sans ligne rouge : Macron parade parce que Poutine, lui, en tient une]]></title><description><![CDATA[Deux articles du Monde du 14 juillet 2026 nomment la guerre psychologique, la cobellig&#233;rance assum&#233;e, l'absence de ligne rouge &#8212; et n'en questionnent aucune.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/sans-ligne-rouge-macron-parade-parce</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/sans-ligne-rouge-macron-parade-parce</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 14 Jul 2026 17:00:45 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LlSE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/keine-rote-linie-macron-paradiert">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/no-red-line-macron-parades-because">English</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/sin-linea-roja-macron-desfila-porque">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/sans-ligne-rouge-macron-parade-parce">Fran&#231;ais</a></p><blockquote><p>Emmanuel Macron : &#171; Nous n&#8217;avons pas de ligne rouge face &#224; quelqu&#8217;un qui n&#8217;a aucune ligne rouge. &#187;</p></blockquote><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LlSE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LlSE!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LlSE!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LlSE!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LlSE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LlSE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png" width="1456" height="1030" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1030,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:3185762,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Illustration panoramique d&#8217;un d&#233;fil&#233; militaire sur les Champs-&#201;lys&#233;es. Des soldats fran&#231;ais en uniforme de c&#233;r&#233;monie marchent devant des militaires ukrainiens et alli&#233;s. Les drapeaux fran&#231;ais, ukrainien, europ&#233;en et ceux de plusieurs pays de la coalition sont d&#233;ploy&#233;s. Une large ligne rouge traverse les pav&#233;s mouill&#233;s sous leurs pas. L&#8217;Arc de Triomphe appara&#238;t au fond et des avions tracent des fum&#233;es bleu-blanc-rouge dans un ciel nuageux. &#192; droite, le g&#233;ant ARGUS, couvert de nombreux yeux, observe la sc&#232;ne pensivement.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207003176?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Illustration panoramique d&#8217;un d&#233;fil&#233; militaire sur les Champs-&#201;lys&#233;es. Des soldats fran&#231;ais en uniforme de c&#233;r&#233;monie marchent devant des militaires ukrainiens et alli&#233;s. Les drapeaux fran&#231;ais, ukrainien, europ&#233;en et ceux de plusieurs pays de la coalition sont d&#233;ploy&#233;s. Une large ligne rouge traverse les pav&#233;s mouill&#233;s sous leurs pas. L&#8217;Arc de Triomphe appara&#238;t au fond et des avions tracent des fum&#233;es bleu-blanc-rouge dans un ciel nuageux. &#192; droite, le g&#233;ant ARGUS, couvert de nombreux yeux, observe la sc&#232;ne pensivement." title="Illustration panoramique d&#8217;un d&#233;fil&#233; militaire sur les Champs-&#201;lys&#233;es. Des soldats fran&#231;ais en uniforme de c&#233;r&#233;monie marchent devant des militaires ukrainiens et alli&#233;s. Les drapeaux fran&#231;ais, ukrainien, europ&#233;en et ceux de plusieurs pays de la coalition sont d&#233;ploy&#233;s. Une large ligne rouge traverse les pav&#233;s mouill&#233;s sous leurs pas. L&#8217;Arc de Triomphe appara&#238;t au fond et des avions tracent des fum&#233;es bleu-blanc-rouge dans un ciel nuageux. &#192; droite, le g&#233;ant ARGUS, couvert de nombreux yeux, observe la sc&#232;ne pensivement." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LlSE!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LlSE!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LlSE!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LlSE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8afa970e-8501-4a0a-8c5b-8e48fe3fa569_1491x1055.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Sous le regard du g&#233;ant ARGUS, les soldats fran&#231;ais, ukrainiens et alli&#233;s franchissent la ligne rouge sur les Champs-&#201;lys&#233;es, tandis que la parade a&#233;rienne dessine le drapeau fran&#231;ais dans le ciel.</figcaption></figure></div><p><em>Le 14 juillet 2026, vingt-cinq militaires ukrainiens ont ouvert la parade des Champs-&#201;lys&#233;es aux c&#244;t&#233;s de l&#8217;arm&#233;e fran&#231;aise, et cinq cents soldats de la &#171; coalition des volontaires &#187; ont d&#233;fil&#233; derri&#232;re eux. Cette formule d&#233;crit un adversaire sans limites et en tire l&#8217;effacement des siennes. La contradiction se d&#233;fait d&#8217;elle-m&#234;me : la France parade et se d&#233;clare sans frein pr&#233;cis&#233;ment parce que la Russie, elle, s&#8217;est retenue de porter la guerre chez les pays qui arment Kiev. Analyse du cadrage, conduite selon le protocole <a href="https://www.argus-protocol.org">ARGUS</a> sur les deux textes complets.</em></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p>Les deux textes analys&#233;s sont <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2026/07/14/entre-emmanuel-macron-et-volodymyr-zelensky-une-relation-a-part-ponctuee-de-malentendus_6723242_3210.html">&#171; Entre Emmanuel Macron et Volodymyr Zelensky, une relation &#224; part, ponctu&#233;e de malentendus &#187;</a> (Claire Gatinois) et <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2026/07/14/defile-du-14-juillet-la-coalition-des-volontaires-va-afficher-son-unite-et-sa-solidarite-avec-l-ukraine-face-a-poutine_6723248_3210.html">&#171; D&#233;fil&#233; du 14-Juillet : la coalition des volontaires affiche son unit&#233; et sa solidarit&#233; avec l&#8217;Ukraine face &#224; Vladimir Poutine &#187;</a> (Claire Gatinois et &#201;lise Vincent).</p></div><h2>Une arm&#233;e en guerre a ouvert la parade d&#8217;un pays qui se dit non bellig&#233;rant</h2><p>Le fait est enregistr&#233; par les deux articles, jamais pos&#233; comme probl&#232;me. Des soldats d&#8217;une arm&#233;e engag&#233;e depuis plus de quatre ans dans une guerre ouvrent le rite national d&#8217;un pays qui n&#8217;a pas d&#233;clar&#233; la guerre &#224; l&#8217;adversaire de cette arm&#233;e. Le premier texte pr&#233;cise le dispositif : &#171; La patrouille de France sera encadr&#233;e par deux Mirage 2000 pilot&#233;s par des Fran&#231;ais, avec des copilotes ukrainiens, form&#233;s en France. &#187; Le second annonce cinq cents soldats &#233;trangers derri&#232;re les troupes fran&#231;aises pour &#171; le dixi&#232;me et dernier d&#233;fil&#233; du 14-Juillet des deux mandats d&#8217;Emmanuel Macron &#187;.</p><p>La tension est interne &#224; ce que les articles rapportent eux-m&#234;mes. La f&#234;te nationale fondatrice de la R&#233;publique accueille dans son cort&#232;ge les combattants d&#8217;un conflit que la France ne m&#232;ne pas officiellement contre la Russie ; les m&#234;mes textes d&#233;crivent par ailleurs le d&#233;fil&#233; comme un &#171; signalement strat&#233;gique &#187; et une &#171; guerre psychologique &#187; dirig&#233;e contre Moscou, et rapportent la France pr&#234;te &#224; d&#233;fendre la libert&#233; &#171; au prix du sang &#187; &#8212; les sections suivantes &#233;tablissent ces points. Les deux articles d&#233;crivent la sc&#232;ne avec faveur. Aucun ne constitue cette tension en objet. Elle sert de d&#233;cor au r&#233;cit, pas de mati&#232;re &#224; examen.</p><p>Ce texte n&#8217;&#233;value pas la politique fran&#231;aise, ni la caract&#233;risation de la Russie. Il porte sur le traitement journalistique : comment une couverture qui nomme pr&#233;cis&#233;ment les faits g&#234;nants parvient &#224; les rendre non probl&#233;matiques.</p><h2>La formule de Macron se contredit elle-m&#234;me</h2><p>Le pivot tient dans une phrase, cit&#233;e par l&#8217;article consacr&#233; &#224; la relation Macron-Zelensky : &#171; Nous n&#8217;avons pas de ligne rouge face &#224; quelqu&#8217;un qui n&#8217;a aucune ligne rouge. &#187;</p><p>La formule se donne pour sym&#233;trique. Elle affirme un ajustement &#224; hauteur de l&#8217;adversaire : puisque l&#8217;autre ne s&#8217;impose aucune limite, je ne m&#8217;en impose aucune. La sym&#233;trie est trompeuse. Si l&#8217;adversaire est r&#233;ellement pos&#233; comme sans aucune limite dans l&#8217;escalade, la conduite prudente consiste &#224; renforcer ses propres freins, pas &#224; les retirer. Devant un acteur d&#233;crit comme illimit&#233;, supprimer son dernier cran d&#8217;arr&#234;t augmente le risque au lieu de le contenir. La phrase emprunte la forme de la lucidit&#233; &#8212; je vois l&#8217;adversaire tel qu&#8217;il est &#8212; pour &#233;noncer un renoncement &#224; la prudence. La conclusion ne d&#233;coule pas de la pr&#233;misse ; elle la contredit.</p><p>La formule op&#232;re aussi un glissement de sens. &#171; Sans lignes rouges &#187; d&#233;signe deux choses distinctes. Sur le plan des normes de la guerre &#8212; ciblage des civils, frappes sur les infrastructures &#233;nerg&#233;tiques, transferts d&#8217;enfants &#8212;, la description d&#8217;un adversaire sans scrupules est soutenue par une part de la documentation disponible. Sur le plan de la gestion de l&#8217;escalade horizontale &#8212; porter la guerre hors d&#8217;Ukraine, frapper un pays qui arme Kiev &#8212;, la m&#234;me expression dit tout autre chose. Le registre pertinent est ici le second, et l&#8217;article l&#8217;indique lui-m&#234;me : la formule y voisine avec la fin de la crainte d&#8217;&#234;tre &#171; &#233;tiquet&#233; comme cobellig&#233;rant &#187;, donc avec la question de l&#8217;escalade hors d&#8217;Ukraine, non avec celle des moyens employ&#233;s sur le sol ukrainien. Sur ce plan, la description est d&#233;mentie par les faits, comme la section suivante l&#8217;&#233;tablit. La formule transporte la cr&#233;dibilit&#233; acquise sur le premier plan vers le second. Le pr&#233;dicat change de r&#233;f&#233;rent entre l&#8217;&#233;nonc&#233; et l&#8217;usage qu&#8217;on en fait, sans que ce d&#233;placement soit signal&#233;.</p><h2>L&#8217;int&#233;grit&#233; de la France, apr&#232;s trois ans et demi, d&#233;ment la pr&#233;misse</h2><p>&#192; la contradiction logique s&#8217;ajoute une r&#233;futation par les faits, ind&#233;pendante de la premi&#232;re. Elle tient m&#234;me si l&#8217;on rejette l&#8217;analyse de la section pr&#233;c&#233;dente, d&#232;s lors que l&#8217;on prend la formule pour une description. Les deux articles en fournissent eux-m&#234;mes le mat&#233;riau.</p><p>Depuis 2022, la France et ses alli&#233;s ont franchi des seuils qu&#8217;ils s&#8217;interdisaient : livraison de blind&#233;s, d&#8217;avions de combat, de missiles de longue port&#233;e, autorisation de frappes en profondeur, pr&#233;sence assum&#233;e. Le premier article le date : Paris a livr&#233; des blind&#233;s AMX-10 d&#232;s 2023, &#171; ne craignant plus d&#8217;&#234;tre &#233;tiquet&#233; comme cobellig&#233;rant aux yeux du Kremlin &#187;. Le second parle d&#8217;alli&#233;s qui &#171; tournaient d&#233;finitivement la page de ce temps o&#249; [ils] redoutaient d&#8217;&#234;tre &#233;tiquet&#233;s comme des cobellig&#233;rants &#187;.</p><p>Au terme de plus de trois ans et demi de franchissements, aucun de ces pays n&#8217;a subi de frappe militaire ouverte et assum&#233;e sur son territoire. La Russie a men&#233;, en revanche, des actions en zone grise &#8212; incursions de drones, instrumentalisation de flux migratoires, soup&#231;ons de sabotage &#8212;, calibr&#233;es et d&#233;niables, maintenues sous le seuil de la riposte ouverte. Cette gradation est un fait observable, et elle sert l&#8217;argument plut&#244;t qu&#8217;elle ne l&#8217;affaiblit : un acteur qui dose ses actions pour rester sous le seuil qui d&#233;clencherait une r&#233;ponse est un acteur qui calcule, p&#232;se les co&#251;ts et r&#233;pond &#224; la dissuasion. Un adversaire r&#233;ellement sans aucune ligne rouge, illimit&#233; et non dissuadable, aurait d&#233;j&#224; port&#233; la guerre ouverte chez les fournisseurs de Kiev. La possibilit&#233; m&#234;me de la posture fran&#231;aise &#8212; s&#8217;afficher sans limite, faire d&#233;filer l&#8217;arm&#233;e ukrainienne sur les Champs-&#201;lys&#233;es, se d&#233;clarer pr&#234;t &#224; d&#233;fendre la libert&#233; &#171; au prix du sang, s&#8217;il le faut &#187; &#8212; repose sur l&#8217;existence de ces limites adverses. On ne s&#8217;affiche sans frein que parce qu&#8217;on parie, correctement jusqu&#8217;ici, que l&#8217;autre en a.</p><p>La posture fran&#231;aise fonctionne ainsi comme une exp&#233;rience qui d&#233;ment sa propre justification. Chaque seuil franchi sans repr&#233;sailles mesure la retenue de l&#8217;adversaire. Plus la France en franchit impun&#233;ment, plus elle &#233;tablit un Poutine qui calcule &#8212; et moins l&#8217;affirmation &#171; il n&#8217;a aucune ligne rouge &#187; se soutient. Le discours entame la branche empirique sur laquelle il repose.</p><p>Une objection m&#233;rite d&#8217;&#234;tre pos&#233;e. La retenue pass&#233;e ne garantit pas la retenue future ; un pari tenu trois ans et demi peut c&#233;der. Un d&#233;fenseur de la formule dira qu&#8217;elle est une posture dissuasive assum&#233;e, un coup dans un jeu d&#8217;escalade contr&#244;l&#233;e, non une description. L&#8217;objection est recevable, mais elle d&#233;place le probl&#232;me sans le r&#233;soudre. Si &#171; nous n&#8217;avons pas de ligne rouge &#187; rel&#232;ve de la communication de guerre et non du constat, alors &#171; il n&#8217;a aucune ligne rouge &#187; en rel&#232;ve probablement aussi, et la phrase cesse d&#8217;&#234;tre la lucidit&#233; strat&#233;gique que la couverture y voit. Dans les deux branches, le traitement journalistique fait d&#233;faut : ou bien la formule est un &#233;nonc&#233; descriptif, et il fallait la confronter aux faits qui la contredisent ; ou bien elle est un acte de communication, et il fallait le signaler au lecteur au lieu de la relayer comme v&#233;rit&#233; m&#251;rie. Les textes ne font ni l&#8217;un ni l&#8217;autre.</p><h2>Le mot &#171; cobellig&#233;rant &#187; n&#8217;appara&#238;t qu&#8217;au pass&#233;</h2><p>Le franchissement du seuil bellig&#233;rant est pr&#233;sent dans les deux articles, toujours au registre de la peur d&#233;pass&#233;e. &#171; Ne craignant plus d&#8217;&#234;tre &#233;tiquet&#233; comme cobellig&#233;rant &#187; ; &#171; tournaient d&#233;finitivement la page de ce temps o&#249; les alli&#233;s redoutaient d&#8217;&#234;tre &#233;tiquet&#233;s comme des cobellig&#233;rants &#187;. Le terme n&#8217;est jamais employ&#233; au pr&#233;sent pour qualifier la situation de la France. Il d&#233;signe une timidit&#233; r&#233;volue.</p><p>Le r&#233;cit qui organise ces mentions est celui d&#8217;une &#233;mancipation. La France a m&#251;ri, elle ne &#171; m&#233;nage &#187; plus la Russie, elle a cess&#233; de &#171; macroner &#187; &#8212; le n&#233;ologisme ukrainien que le premier article rappelle pour d&#233;signer les atermoiements pass&#233;s du pr&#233;sident. Le franchissement du seuil n&#8217;est pos&#233; ni comme rupture, ni comme d&#233;cision engageant un d&#233;bat sur le statut du pays, ni comme controverse. Le statut bellig&#233;rant de fait devient le d&#233;cor devant lequel se joue le r&#233;cit du courage retrouv&#233;.</p><p>Le 14-Juillet porte cette occultation &#224; son comble symbolique. Une arm&#233;e en guerre ouvre la parade nationale, deux Mirage encadrent la patrouille de France avec des copilotes ukrainiens, une trentaine de chefs d&#8217;&#201;tat et de gouvernement occupent la tribune d&#8217;honneur. La question que la sc&#232;ne appelle &#8212; est-il prudent, l&#233;gitime, et d&#233;cid&#233; par qui, qu&#8217;un pays non bellig&#233;rant int&#232;gre ainsi une arm&#233;e bellig&#233;rante &#224; son rite fondateur &#8212; n&#8217;est pos&#233;e nulle part.</p><h2>L&#8217;article nomme la f&#234;te nationale comme acte de guerre psychologique</h2><p>Ce point est au cr&#233;dit de l&#8217;article, et il rend l&#8217;occultation d&#233;montrable. Le deuxi&#232;me texte &#233;crit que le d&#233;fil&#233; est un &#171; signalement strat&#233;gique &#187;, que le conflit avec la Russie est &#171; aussi une guerre psychologique &#187;, et que l&#8217;objectif est &#171; de d&#233;moraliser l&#8217;ennemi par la d&#233;monstration de sa propre puissance &#187;. Le discours de Macron aux arm&#233;es y ajoute la d&#233;fense de la libert&#233; &#171; au prix du sang, s&#8217;il le faut &#187;.</p><p>L&#8217;article &#233;tablit donc lui-m&#234;me que la f&#234;te nationale est convertie en instrument d&#8217;une guerre psychologique dirig&#233;e contre un &#201;tat tiers. Il l&#8217;&#233;crit. Le fil s&#8217;arr&#234;te l&#224;. Qu&#8217;un rite civil r&#233;publicain devienne une arme dans une guerre non d&#233;clar&#233;e n&#8217;ouvre aucune interrogation sur ce que cela engage. Le texte fournit la pr&#233;misse d&#8217;un questionnement et se tait au seuil de ce questionnement.</p><h2>Quatre proc&#233;d&#233;s referment la question</h2><p>L&#8217;occultation ne rel&#232;ve pas de l&#8217;omission : les faits g&#234;nants sont pr&#233;sents. Elle proc&#232;de d&#8217;un traitement qui les prive de leur port&#233;e. Le crit&#232;re retenu ici est v&#233;rifiable. Un contradictoire est effectif s&#8217;il oblige la couverture &#224; modifier, limiter ou reconfigurer sa trajectoire ; il est d&#233;coratif s&#8217;il est introduit de fa&#231;on &#224; ne pouvoir l&#8217;infl&#233;chir. Une objection port&#233;e par une voix non disqualifi&#233;e, et qui r&#233;orienterait la pi&#232;ce, compterait comme effective : le diagnostic reste donc r&#233;futable. Quatre m&#233;canismes se combinent.</p><p><strong>La seule dissidence est port&#233;e par une figure pr&#233;alablement disqualifi&#233;e.</strong> L&#8217;unique voix qui trouve le d&#233;fil&#233; anormal, dans les deux textes, est celle de Philippe de Villiers (&#171; cette petite touche nazie &#187;), aussit&#244;t qualifi&#233; par l&#8217;article de &#171; royaliste souverainiste, inspirateur de l&#8217;extr&#234;me droite &#187;, &#171; relayant le discours du Kremlin &#187;. Contester l&#8217;&#233;v&#233;nement se trouve ainsi assimil&#233; &#224; un alignement sur l&#8217;extr&#234;me droite et sur Moscou. L&#8217;objection est d&#233;corative au sens pr&#233;cis retenu plus haut : de Villiers est introduit uniquement par sa disqualification, ce qui interdit d&#8217;embl&#233;e &#224; sa r&#233;serve d&#8217;infl&#233;chir le cadre, ind&#233;pendamment de ce qu&#8217;elle vaudrait. Aucune voix non disqualifi&#233;e ne porte la m&#234;me objection dans ces textes.</p><p><strong>La contradiction est dissoute par juxtaposition orient&#233;e.</strong> Les deux termes incompatibles &#8212; un Poutine pos&#233; comme illimit&#233;, une France qui s&#8217;aligne sur cette illimitation &#8212; sont rang&#233;s dans la m&#234;me colonne, celle de la lucidit&#233; retrouv&#233;e. Le r&#233;cit de la maturation courageuse les r&#233;concilie avant que leur choc n&#8217;affleure. Le lecteur re&#231;oit les deux &#233;l&#233;ments et ne bute sur aucun, parce que le fil narratif les a d&#233;j&#224; accord&#233;s.</p><p><strong>Le p&#233;rim&#232;tre du discutable est resserr&#233; sur les moyens.</strong> La couverture autorise le doute sur le financement des Rafale, les carnets de commandes de Dassault, la sinc&#233;rit&#233; de Macron, la cr&#233;dibilit&#233; de la coalition &#8212; que le deuxi&#232;me article qualifie lui-m&#234;me d&#8217;&#171; avant tout un affichage &#187; et de &#171; coalition of the meetings &#187;. Elle laisse hors champ la l&#233;gitimit&#233; et la prudence du franchissement bellig&#233;rant lui-m&#234;me. Le d&#233;bat est ouvert sur l&#8217;intendance, ferm&#233; sur la d&#233;cision.</p><p><strong>La v&#233;rification est appliqu&#233;e in&#233;galement aux deux bellig&#233;rants.</strong> La caract&#233;risation de l&#8217;adversaire m&#234;le des faits &#233;tablis par des sources ind&#233;pendantes des parties et des affirmations port&#233;es par les parties int&#233;ress&#233;es au conflit, &#224; commencer par le principal cobellig&#233;rant, l&#8217;Ukraine de Volodymyr Zelensky. Les deux textes ne font pas ce tri. Les d&#233;clarations ukrainiennes sont reprises au registre du constat ; Zelensky est cit&#233; comme t&#233;moin fiable ; les rares &#233;l&#233;ments de la partie russe, quand ils apparaissent, sont marqu&#233;s comme propagande. L&#8217;exigence de sour&#231;age que la couverture devrait appliquer sym&#233;triquement joue d&#8217;un seul c&#244;t&#233;.</p><p>Ce dernier point demande une pr&#233;caution, sans laquelle il se retourne en son contraire. Relever l&#8217;asym&#233;trie de traitement n&#8217;&#233;tablit pas la sym&#233;trie des torts. Montrer qu&#8217;un bellig&#233;rant est une source int&#233;ress&#233;e ne rend pas fiable la source adverse. L&#8217;&#233;tat de guerre emp&#234;che l&#8217;&#233;tablissement contradictoire de nombreux faits, et cet emp&#234;chement joue in&#233;galement selon les dossiers : certains &#233;l&#233;ments mat&#233;riels r&#233;sistent &#224; la v&#233;rification ind&#233;pendante, d&#8217;autres restent ind&#233;cidables. Le reproche adress&#233; &#224; cette couverture ne porte pas sur le camp qu&#8217;elle aurait tort ou raison de croire. Il porte sur l&#8217;absence de tri entre ce qui est &#233;tabli hors des parties et ce qui provient d&#8217;une partie, et sur le fait que cette absence de tri alimente &#224; sens unique le r&#233;cit de la maturation.</p><p>Le terme qui r&#233;sume l&#8217;ensemble est celui de cl&#244;ture interpr&#233;tative. Les textes donnent au lecteur tous les &#233;l&#233;ments d&#8217;un doute possible, et organisent leur pr&#233;sentation de mani&#232;re &#224; rendre ce doute improbable.</p><h2>Ce que la couverture &#233;tablit exactement</h2><p>La d&#233;faillance n&#8217;est pas factuelle, et il faut le dire aussi nettement que le reste.</p><p>Les faits centraux sont exacts, dat&#233;s, attribu&#233;s : les livraisons d&#8217;armes et leurs dates, les citations de Macron, de Zelensky, de Friedrich Merz, la composition de la coalition, le dispositif d&#8217;ouverture de la parade. Les deux articles ne dissimulent pas les &#233;l&#233;ments qui pourraient nourrir la critique : ils nomment la cobellig&#233;rance assum&#233;e, la guerre psychologique, l&#8217;absence revendiqu&#233;e de ligne rouge, la formule &#171; au prix du sang &#187;. Le mat&#233;riau du doute est fourni par les textes eux-m&#234;mes.</p><p>Le premier article, dans son corps, est critique du bilan russe de Macron. Un sous-titre annonce &#171; Les illusions d&#8217;Emmanuel Macron &#187;. Une note d&#8217;avril 2024 de Dimitri Minic (Institut fran&#231;ais des relations internationales) y d&#233;signe comme sa &#171; plus importante erreur &#187; d&#8217;avoir li&#233; la souverainet&#233; europ&#233;enne &#224; un rapprochement avec Moscou. L&#8217;article &#233;crit en voix propre que Macron &#171; se berce de l&#8217;illusion de r&#233;ussir l&#224; o&#249; tous ses homologues ont &#233;chou&#233; &#187;, rappelle son refus de qualifier Poutine de &#171; boucher &#187; apr&#232;s Boutcha et son refus du terme &#171; g&#233;nocide &#187;, d&#233;crit une amiti&#233; Macron-Zelensky &#171; mise en sc&#232;ne &#187; par deux &#171; as de la communication &#187;, et relativise en chiffres le soutien fran&#231;ais, &#171; peu d&#8217;armes et d&#8217;argent en comparaison avec l&#8217;Allemagne et le Royaume-Uni &#187;. La couverture n&#8217;est pas hagiographique.</p><p>Le contradictoire est donc r&#233;el sur un axe : la comp&#233;tence et la sinc&#233;rit&#233; de Macron, la cr&#233;dibilit&#233; des moyens occidentaux. Il est absent ou d&#233;coratif sur l&#8217;autre : la l&#233;gitimit&#233; du cadre et la caract&#233;risation de l&#8217;adversaire. La couverture autorise le lecteur &#224; douter des acteurs occidentaux et de leurs moyens. Elle ne l&#8217;autorise pas &#224; douter du cadre dans lequel ces acteurs agissent.</p><h2>Ce que cette analyse ne dit pas</h2><p>Le diagnostic est un effet de cadrage, compatible avec la bonne foi journalistique. Il ne suppose ni mensonge ni coordination d&#8217;un message.</p><p>Il ne porte pas sur la justesse de la politique fran&#231;aise vis-&#224;-vis de la Russie, ni sur la r&#233;alit&#233; des faits de guerre eux-m&#234;mes, dont l&#8217;&#233;tablissement contradictoire est emp&#234;ch&#233; par la guerre. Le c&#339;ur de la d&#233;monstration ne d&#233;pend d&#8217;aucun jugement sur la Russie : la formule de Macron se contredit que l&#8217;adversaire soit un saint ou un criminel, et l&#8217;int&#233;grit&#233; de la France apr&#232;s trois ans et demi de franchissements est un fait ind&#233;pendant de toute sympathie pour Moscou.</p><p>On objectera que le d&#233;s&#233;quilibre de traitement entre les deux camps est justifi&#233; : c&#8217;est la Russie qui a envahi en f&#233;vrier 2022, ce sont ses frappes qui sont document&#233;es par des sources ind&#233;pendantes, et traiter les deux bellig&#233;rants &#224; parit&#233; serait le biais, non la neutralit&#233;. L&#8217;objection est recevable, mais elle ne touche pas ce que l&#8217;analyse vise. Un d&#233;s&#233;quilibre fond&#233; sur des faits &#233;tablis reste l&#233;gitime. Cette analyse rel&#232;ve un fait distinct : la couverture cesse de v&#233;rifier d&#232;s qu&#8217;une affirmation va dans le sens de son cadre, qu&#8217;elle vienne d&#8217;une source ind&#233;pendante ou de la partie ukrainienne, qu&#8217;elle soit &#233;tablie ou seulement all&#233;gu&#233;e. Le reproche laisse enti&#232;re la qualification de la Russie comme agresseur. Il vise l&#8217;abandon du tri entre ce qui est prouv&#233; et ce qui est affirm&#233; par un camp.</p><p>Le pivot de cette analyse &#233;chappe d&#8217;ailleurs enti&#232;rement &#224; l&#8217;objection. La contradiction de la formule de Macron se passe de tout arbitrage entre les r&#233;cits des bellig&#233;rants : elle tient dans la structure d&#8217;une phrase et dans le fait que les deux textes ne l&#8217;interrogent pas. Elle vaut que l&#8217;on donne raison &#224; Kiev ou &#224; Moscou sur tout le reste.</p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><h2 style="text-align: center;">Note de m&#233;thode</h2><p>Cette analyse s&#8217;appuie sur les deux articles du <em>Monde</em> cit&#233;s et li&#233;s en t&#234;te, dans leurs versions compl&#232;tes. Elle suit le protocole ARGUS : examen prioritaire du dispositif d&#8217;ouverture, test de validit&#233; logique, test de sym&#233;trie &#233;pist&#233;mique et de traitement des acteurs, test des absences, qualification du contradictoire. Les deux textes portent la m&#234;me signature principale, Claire Gatinois, ce qui autorise &#224; les traiter comme une couverture homog&#232;ne et &#224; parler d&#8217;&#171; une couverture &#187; ; les observations ne valent que pour ces deux articles et ne pr&#233;jugent pas de la ligne du journal au-del&#224; d&#8217;eux. Un corpus construit sur un autre crit&#232;re conduirait, &#224; partir de faits comparables, &#224; d&#8217;autres observations. Les citations sont reproduites telles qu&#8217;elles figurent dans les textes analys&#233;s.</p></div><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Toutes nos publications sont gratuites et en Copyleft. Elles peuvent &#234;tre republi&#233;es, int&#233;gralement ou partiellement, aux conditions suivantes :<br>&#8594; respect de l&#8217;intitul&#233; et du contenu<br>(texte, images, notes d&#8217;&#233;diteur ou de traducteur, encadr&#233;s)<br>&#8594;</strong> <strong>indication du ou des auteurs et/ou traducteurs<br>&#8594; lien cliquable vers la source.<br>Toute mon&#233;tisation ou utilisation commerciale de ces publications est exclue et fera l&#8217;objet de poursuites.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[No red line: Macron parades because Putin does hold one]]></title><description><![CDATA[Two Le Monde articles from 14 July 2026 name the psychological warfare, the openly assumed cobelligerence, the absence of any red line &#8212; and question none of it.]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/no-red-line-macron-parades-because</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/no-red-line-macron-parades-because</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 14 Jul 2026 17:00:41 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lA0E!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/tlaxcaladeutsch/p/keine-rote-linie-macron-paradiert">Deutsch</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/no-red-line-macron-parades-because">English</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/sin-linea-roja-macron-desfila-porque">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/sans-ligne-rouge-macron-parade-parce">Fran&#231;ais</a></p><blockquote><p>Emmanuel Macron: &#171; Nous n&#8217;avons pas de ligne rouge face &#224; quelqu&#8217;un qui n&#8217;a aucune ligne rouge. &#187; [We have no red line when facing someone who has no red line at all.]</p></blockquote><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lA0E!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lA0E!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lA0E!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lA0E!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lA0E!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lA0E!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png" width="1456" height="1030" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1030,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:3185762,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Panoramic illustration of a military parade on the Champs-&#201;lys&#233;es. French soldiers in ceremonial uniform march ahead of Ukrainian and allied troops. French, Ukrainian, European and several coalition flags are displayed. A broad red line crosses the wet cobblestones beneath their feet. The Arc de Triomphe stands in the background, while aircraft leave blue, white and red trails in a cloudy sky. On the right, the many-eyed giant ARGUS watches the scene thoughtfully.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/207031019?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Panoramic illustration of a military parade on the Champs-&#201;lys&#233;es. French soldiers in ceremonial uniform march ahead of Ukrainian and allied troops. French, Ukrainian, European and several coalition flags are displayed. A broad red line crosses the wet cobblestones beneath their feet. The Arc de Triomphe stands in the background, while aircraft leave blue, white and red trails in a cloudy sky. On the right, the many-eyed giant ARGUS watches the scene thoughtfully." title="Panoramic illustration of a military parade on the Champs-&#201;lys&#233;es. French soldiers in ceremonial uniform march ahead of Ukrainian and allied troops. French, Ukrainian, European and several coalition flags are displayed. A broad red line crosses the wet cobblestones beneath their feet. The Arc de Triomphe stands in the background, while aircraft leave blue, white and red trails in a cloudy sky. On the right, the many-eyed giant ARGUS watches the scene thoughtfully." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lA0E!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lA0E!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lA0E!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lA0E!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa93393c8-cae5-4ffd-bd88-2b15f9826b32_1491x1055.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Under the gaze of the many-eyed giant ARGUS, French, Ukrainian and allied soldiers cross the red line on the Champs-&#201;lys&#233;es as the aerial parade traces the French colours across the sky.</figcaption></figure></div><p><em>On 14 July 2026, twenty-five Ukrainian soldiers opened the parade on the Champs-&#201;lys&#233;es alongside the French army, and five hundred soldiers of the &#8220;coalition of the willing&#8221; marched behind them. That sentence describes an adversary without limits and draws from it the erasure of one&#8217;s own. The contradiction unravels on its own: France parades and declares itself unrestrained precisely because Russia, for its part, has refrained from carrying the war into the countries that arm Kyiv. An analysis of the framing, conducted according to the ARGUS protocol, on the two full texts.</em></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p>The two texts analysed are <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2026/07/14/entre-emmanuel-macron-et-volodymyr-zelensky-une-relation-a-part-ponctuee-de-malentendus_6723242_3210.html">&#8220;Between Emmanuel Macron and Volodymyr Zelensky, a relationship apart, marked by misunderstandings&#8221;</a> [Entre Emmanuel Macron et Volodymyr Zelensky, une relation &#224; part, ponctu&#233;e de malentendus] (Claire Gatinois) and <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2026/07/14/defile-du-14-juillet-la-coalition-des-volontaires-va-afficher-son-unite-et-sa-solidarite-avec-l-ukraine-face-a-poutine_6723248_3210.html">&#8220;Bastille Day parade: the coalition of the willing displays its unity and solidarity with Ukraine against Vladimir Putin&#8221;</a> [D&#233;fil&#233; du 14-Juillet : la coalition des volontaires affiche son unit&#233; et sa solidarit&#233; avec l&#8217;Ukraine face &#224; Vladimir Poutine] (Claire Gatinois and &#201;lise Vincent).</p></div><h2>An army at war opened the parade of a country that says it is not belligerent</h2><p>The fact is recorded by both articles, never posed as a problem. Soldiers of an army engaged for more than four years in a war open the national rite of a country that has not declared war on that army&#8217;s adversary. The first text specifies the arrangement: &#171; La patrouille de France sera encadr&#233;e par deux Mirage 2000 pilot&#233;s par des Fran&#231;ais, avec des copilotes ukrainiens, form&#233;s en France. &#187; [The Patrouille de France will be flanked by two Mirage 2000s piloted by French airmen, with Ukrainian co-pilots trained in France.] The second announces five hundred foreign soldiers behind the French troops for &#171; le dixi&#232;me et dernier d&#233;fil&#233; du 14-Juillet des deux mandats d&#8217;Emmanuel Macron &#187; [the tenth and last Bastille Day parade of Emmanuel Macron&#8217;s two terms].</p><p>The tension is internal to what the articles themselves report. The national celebration that founds the Republic welcomes into its procession the combatants of a conflict that France is not officially waging against Russia; the same texts describe the parade elsewhere as a &#171; signalement strat&#233;gique &#187; [strategic signalling] and a &#171; guerre psychologique &#187; [psychological war] directed at Moscow, and report France ready to defend liberty &#171; au prix du sang &#187; [at the price of blood] &#8212; the following sections establish these points. Both articles describe the scene with favour. Neither constitutes this tension as an object. It serves as the backdrop of the narrative, not as material for examination.</p><p>This text does not assess French policy, nor the characterisation of Russia. It concerns the journalistic treatment: how coverage that names the awkward facts precisely nonetheless manages to render them unproblematic.</p><h2>Macron&#8217;s formula contradicts itself</h2><p>The pivot lies in a single sentence, quoted by the article on the Macron-Zelensky relationship: &#171; Nous n&#8217;avons pas de ligne rouge face &#224; quelqu&#8217;un qui n&#8217;a aucune ligne rouge. &#187; [We have no red line when facing someone who has no red line at all.]</p><p>The formula presents itself as symmetrical. It asserts an adjustment to match the adversary: since the other imposes no limit on himself, I impose none on myself. The symmetry is deceptive. If the adversary is genuinely posited as without any limit in escalation, the prudent course is to reinforce one&#8217;s own brakes, not to remove them. Faced with an actor described as limitless, removing one&#8217;s last safety catch increases the risk instead of containing it. The sentence borrows the form of lucidity &#8212; I see the adversary as he is &#8212; to state a renunciation of prudence. The conclusion does not follow from the premise; it contradicts it.</p><p>The formula also performs a shift of meaning. &#8220;Without red lines&#8221; designates two distinct things. On the plane of the norms of war &#8212; targeting civilians, strikes on energy infrastructure, transfers of children &#8212; the description of an adversary without scruples is supported by part of the available documentation. On the plane of managing horizontal escalation &#8212; carrying the war outside Ukraine, striking a country that arms Kyiv &#8212; the same expression says something else entirely. The pertinent register here is the second, and the article indicates it itself: the formula stands there next to the end of the fear of being &#171; &#233;tiquet&#233; comme cobellig&#233;rant &#187; [labelled a cobelligerent], hence next to the question of escalation beyond Ukraine, not that of the means employed on Ukrainian soil. On this plane, the description is belied by the facts, as the following section establishes. The formula transfers the credibility acquired on the first plane to the second. The predicate changes its referent between the statement and the use made of it, without that displacement being flagged.</p><h2>France&#8217;s intactness, after three and a half years, refutes the premise</h2><p>To the logical contradiction is added a refutation by the facts, independent of the first. It holds even if one rejects the analysis of the previous section, provided one takes the formula as a description. The two articles themselves supply its material.</p><p>Since 2022, France and its allies have crossed thresholds they had forbidden themselves: delivery of armoured vehicles, combat aircraft, long-range missiles, authorisation of deep strikes, an openly acknowledged presence. The first article dates it: Paris delivered AMX-10 armoured vehicles as early as 2023, &#171; ne craignant plus d&#8217;&#234;tre &#233;tiquet&#233; comme cobellig&#233;rant aux yeux du Kremlin &#187; [no longer fearing being labelled a cobelligerent in the Kremlin&#8217;s eyes]. The second speaks of allies who &#171; tournaient d&#233;finitivement la page de ce temps o&#249; [ils] redoutaient d&#8217;&#234;tre &#233;tiquet&#233;s comme des cobellig&#233;rants &#187; [were definitively turning the page on the time when they dreaded being labelled cobelligerents].</p><p>After more than three and a half years of crossings, none of these countries has suffered an open, acknowledged military strike on its territory. Russia has, on the other hand, conducted grey-zone actions &#8212; drone incursions, the instrumentalisation of migratory flows, suspicions of sabotage &#8212; calibrated and deniable, kept below the threshold of open retaliation. This gradation is an observable fact, and it serves the argument rather than weakening it: an actor who calibrates his actions to stay below the threshold that would trigger a response is an actor who calculates, weighs the costs, and responds to deterrence. An adversary genuinely without any red line, limitless and undeterrable, would already have carried open war into Kyiv&#8217;s suppliers. The very possibility of the French posture &#8212; to present oneself as limitless, to march the Ukrainian army down the Champs-&#201;lys&#233;es, to declare oneself ready to defend liberty &#171; au prix du sang, s&#8217;il le faut &#187; [at the price of blood, if need be] &#8212; rests on the existence of those adversarial limits. One presents oneself as unrestrained only because one wagers, correctly so far, that the other is restrained.</p><p>The French posture thus works like an experiment that refutes its own justification. Each threshold crossed without reprisal measures the adversary&#8217;s restraint. The more France crosses them with impunity, the more it establishes a Putin who calculates &#8212; and the less the claim &#171; il n&#8217;a aucune ligne rouge &#187; [he has no red line at all] holds up. The discourse cuts into the empirical branch on which it rests.</p><p>One objection deserves to be raised. Past restraint does not guarantee future restraint; a wager held for three and a half years can give way. A defender of the formula will say it is an assumed deterrent posture, a move in a game of controlled escalation, not a description. The objection is admissible, but it displaces the problem without resolving it. If &#171; nous n&#8217;avons pas de ligne rouge &#187; [we have no red line] belongs to war communication rather than to observation, then &#171; il n&#8217;a aucune ligne rouge &#187; [he has no red line at all] probably does too, and the sentence ceases to be the strategic lucidity the coverage sees in it. On both branches, the journalistic treatment fails: either the formula is a descriptive statement, and it had to be confronted with the facts that contradict it; or it is an act of communication, and this had to be flagged to the reader instead of being relayed as matured truth. The texts do neither.</p><h2>The word &#171; cobellig&#233;rant &#187; appears only in the past tense</h2><p>The crossing of the belligerent threshold is present in both articles, always in the register of a fear now overcome. &#171; Ne craignant plus d&#8217;&#234;tre &#233;tiquet&#233; comme cobellig&#233;rant &#187; [no longer fearing being labelled a cobelligerent]; &#171; tournaient d&#233;finitivement la page de ce temps o&#249; les alli&#233;s redoutaient d&#8217;&#234;tre &#233;tiquet&#233;s comme des cobellig&#233;rants &#187; [definitively turning the page on the time when the allies dreaded being labelled cobelligerents]. The term is never used in the present to characterise France&#8217;s situation. It designates a bygone timidity.</p><p>The narrative that organises these mentions is one of emancipation. France has matured, it no longer &#171; m&#233;nage &#187; [handles with care, spares] Russia, it has stopped &#171; macroner &#187; &#8212; the Ukrainian neologism the first article recalls to describe the president&#8217;s past waverings. The crossing of the threshold is posed neither as a rupture, nor as a decision opening a debate on the country&#8217;s status, nor as a controversy. De facto belligerent status becomes the backdrop against which the narrative of recovered courage is played out.</p><p>Bastille Day carries this occultation to its symbolic peak. An army at war opens the national parade, two Mirages flank the Patrouille de France with Ukrainian co-pilots, some thirty heads of State and government occupy the guests of honour stand. The question the scene calls for &#8212; is it prudent, legitimate, and decided by whom, that a non-belligerent country should thus integrate a belligerent army into its founding rite &#8212; is posed nowhere.</p><h2>The article names the national celebration as an act of psychological warfare</h2><p>This point is to the article&#8217;s credit, and it makes the occultation demonstrable. The second text writes that the parade is a &#171; signalement strat&#233;gique &#187; [strategic signalling], that the conflict with Russia is &#171; aussi une guerre psychologique &#187; [also a psychological war], and that the aim is &#171; de d&#233;moraliser l&#8217;ennemi par la d&#233;monstration de sa propre puissance &#187; [to demoralise the enemy through the demonstration of one&#8217;s own power]. Macron&#8217;s address to the armed forces adds the defence of liberty &#171; au prix du sang, s&#8217;il le faut &#187; [at the price of blood, if need be].</p><p>The article thus establishes, on its own, that the national celebration is converted into an instrument of psychological warfare directed at a third State. It writes it. The thread stops there. That a civic republican rite becomes a weapon in an undeclared war opens no inquiry into what this entails. The text supplies the premise of a questioning and falls silent at the threshold of that questioning.</p><h2>Four devices close the question</h2><p>The occultation is not an omission: the awkward facts are present. It proceeds from a treatment that strips them of their weight. The criterion used here is verifiable. A counter-voice is effective if it forces the coverage to modify, limit, or reconfigure its trajectory; it is decorative if it is introduced so as to be unable to inflect it. An objection carried by a non-disqualified voice, one that would reorient the piece, would count as effective: the diagnosis therefore remains refutable. Four mechanisms combine.</p><p><strong>The sole dissent is carried by a figure disqualified in advance.</strong> The only voice that finds the parade abnormal, in both texts, is that of Philippe de Villiers (&#171; cette petite touche nazie &#187; [that little Nazi touch]), immediately labelled by the article a &#171; royaliste souverainiste, inspirateur de l&#8217;extr&#234;me droite &#187; [sovereigntist royalist, inspirer of the far right], &#171; relayant le discours du Kremlin &#187; [relaying the Kremlin&#8217;s discourse]. Contesting the event is thereby assimilated to an alignment with the far right and with Moscow. The objection is decorative in the precise sense set out above: de Villiers is introduced solely through his disqualification, which from the outset prevents his reservation from inflecting the frame, regardless of what it might be worth. No non-disqualified voice carries the same objection in these texts.</p><p><strong>The contradiction is dissolved by oriented juxtaposition.</strong> The two incompatible terms &#8212; a Putin posited as limitless, a France that aligns itself with this limitlessness &#8212; are filed in the same column, that of recovered lucidity. The narrative of courageous maturation reconciles them before their collision can surface. The reader receives both elements and stumbles on neither, because the narrative thread has already harmonised them.</p><p><strong>The scope of the debatable is narrowed to the means.</strong> The coverage permits doubt about the financing of the Rafales, Dassault&#8217;s order books, Macron&#8217;s sincerity, the coalition&#8217;s credibility &#8212; which the second article itself calls &#171; avant tout un affichage &#187; [above all a display] and &#171; the coalition of the meetings &#187;. It leaves out of frame the legitimacy and the prudence of the belligerent crossing itself. The debate is open on the logistics, closed on the decision.</p><p><strong>Verification is applied unequally to the two belligerents.</strong> The characterisation of the adversary mixes facts established by sources independent of the parties with assertions carried by the parties with a stake in the conflict, beginning with the principal cobelligerent, Volodymyr Zelensky&#8217;s Ukraine. The two texts do not make this sorting. Ukrainian statements are taken up in the register of established fact; Zelensky is quoted as a reliable witness; the rare elements from the Russian side, when they appear, are marked as propaganda. The sourcing standard that the coverage ought to apply symmetrically operates on one side only.</p><p>This last point requires a precaution, without which it turns into its opposite. To note the asymmetry of treatment does not establish the symmetry of wrongs. To show that one belligerent is an interested source does not make the opposing source reliable. The state of war prevents the contradictory establishment of many facts, and this impediment operates unequally across dossiers: some material elements withstand independent verification, others remain undecidable. The reproach addressed to this coverage does not bear on which side it would be right or wrong to believe. It bears on the absence of sorting between what is established outside the parties and what comes from a party, and on the fact that this absence of sorting feeds the maturation narrative in one direction only.</p><p>The term that sums up the whole is interpretive closure. The texts give the reader every element of a possible doubt, and organise their presentation so as to render that doubt improbable.</p><h2>What the coverage establishes exactly</h2><p>The failing is not factual, and this must be said as plainly as the rest.</p><p>The central facts are accurate, dated, attributed: the arms deliveries and their dates, the quotations from Macron, Zelensky, Friedrich Merz, the composition of the coalition, the parade&#8217;s opening arrangement. The two articles do not conceal the elements that might feed criticism: they name the assumed cobelligerence, the psychological warfare, the openly claimed absence of a red line, the &#171; au prix du sang &#187; [at the price of blood] formula. The material for doubt is supplied by the texts themselves.</p><p>The first article, in its body, is critical of Macron&#8217;s Russia record. A subheading announces &#171; Les illusions d&#8217;Emmanuel Macron &#187; [Emmanuel Macron&#8217;s illusions]. An April 2024 note by Dimitri Minic (French Institute of International Relations) designates as his &#171; plus importante erreur &#187; [most important mistake] having tied European sovereignty to a rapprochement with Moscow. The article writes in its own voice that Macron &#171; se berce de l&#8217;illusion de r&#233;ussir l&#224; o&#249; tous ses homologues ont &#233;chou&#233; &#187; [lulls himself with the illusion of succeeding where all his counterparts have failed], recalls his refusal to call Putin a &#171; boucher &#187; [butcher] after Bucha and his refusal of the term &#171; g&#233;nocide &#187; [genocide], describes a Macron-Zelensky friendship &#171; mise en sc&#232;ne &#187; [staged] by two &#171; as de la communication &#187; [aces of communication], and puts the French support in perspective with figures, &#171; peu d&#8217;armes et d&#8217;argent en comparaison avec l&#8217;Allemagne et le Royaume-Uni &#187; [few arms and little money compared with Germany and the United Kingdom]. The coverage is not hagiographic.</p><p>The counter-argument is therefore real on one axis: Macron&#8217;s competence and sincerity, the credibility of the Western means. It is absent or decorative on the other: the legitimacy of the frame and the characterisation of the adversary. The coverage permits the reader to doubt the Western actors and their means. It does not permit doubt about the frame within which those actors operate.</p><h2>What this analysis does not say</h2><p>The diagnosis is a framing effect, compatible with journalistic good faith. It supposes neither lying nor coordination of a message.</p><p>It does not bear on the soundness of French policy toward Russia, nor on the reality of the war facts themselves, whose contradictory establishment is prevented by the war. The core of the demonstration depends on no judgement about Russia: Macron&#8217;s formula contradicts itself whether the adversary is a saint or a criminal, and France&#8217;s intactness after three and a half years of crossings is a fact independent of any sympathy for Moscow.</p><p>It will be objected that the imbalance of treatment between the two sides is justified: it was Russia that invaded in February 2022, it is its strikes that are documented by independent sources, and treating the two belligerents on a par would be the bias, not neutrality. The objection is admissible, but it does not touch what the analysis targets. An imbalance grounded in established facts remains legitimate. This analysis notes a distinct fact: the coverage ceases to verify as soon as an assertion runs in the direction of its frame, whether it comes from an independent source or from the Ukrainian party, whether it is established or merely alleged. The reproach leaves entirely intact the characterisation of Russia as aggressor. It targets the abandonment of sorting between what is proven and what is asserted by one side.</p><p>The pivot of this analysis, moreover, escapes the objection entirely. The contradiction of Macron&#8217;s formula dispenses with any arbitration between the belligerents&#8217; narratives: it holds in the structure of a sentence and in the fact that the two texts do not interrogate it. It stands whether one sides with Kyiv or with Moscow on all the rest.</p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><h2 style="text-align: center;">Note on method</h2><p>This analysis draws on the two <em>Le Monde</em> articles cited and linked above, in their full versions. It follows the <a href="https://www.argus-protocol.org">ARGUS</a> protocol: priority examination of the opening device, test of logical validity, test of epistemic symmetry and of the treatment of actors, test of absences, qualification of the counter-argument. The two texts carry the same lead byline, Claire Gatinois, which warrants treating them as homogeneous coverage and speaking of &#8220;a coverage&#8221;; the observations hold only for these two articles and do not prejudge the paper&#8217;s line beyond them. A corpus built on another criterion would lead, from comparable facts, to other observations. The quotations are reproduced as they appear in the analysed texts.</p></div><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>All our publications are free and Copyleft. They may be republished, in whole or in part, under following conditions:</strong><br><strong>&#8594; keeping the title and content</strong><br><strong>(text, images, editor&#8217;s or translator&#8217;s notes, boxes)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; crediting the author(s) and/or translator(s)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; inserting a clickable link to the source.</strong><br><strong>Any monetization or commercial use of these publications is prohibited and will be subject to legal action.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Corée 4/4] L’État a bâti les chaebols : peut-il aujourd’hui réclamer sa part de l’IA ?]]></title><description><![CDATA[Chez Samsung, un &#233;cart de primes de cent contre un divise l&#8217;entreprise]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-44-letat-a-bati-les-chaebols</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-44-letat-a-bati-les-chaebols</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 14 Jul 2026 05:01:58 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZqZe!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206724119">English</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/corea-44-el-estado-construyo-los-2a0">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206711135">Fran&#231;ais</a></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong><span data-color="#cc0000" style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">Dossier Cor&#233;e du Sud</span></strong></p><ol><li><p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-14-de-wolfsburg-a-ulsan-qui">De Wolfsburg &#224; Ulsan : qui a encore le pouvoir de dire non ?</a></p></li><li><p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-24-metaplant-la-vitrine-dhier">Metaplant, la vitrine d&#8217;hier : comment Hyundai a perdu la main sur sa propre trajectoire</a></p></li><li><p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-34-de-pyeongtaek-a-icheon-a">De Pyeongtaek &#224; Icheon : &#224; qui profite la manne de l&#8217;IA ?</a></p></li><li><p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-44-letat-a-bati-les-chaebols">L&#8217;&#201;tat a b&#226;ti les chaebols : peut-il aujourd&#8217;hui r&#233;clamer sa part de l&#8217;IA ?</a></p></li></ol></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZqZe!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZqZe!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZqZe!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZqZe!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZqZe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZqZe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png" width="1448" height="1086" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1086,&quot;width&quot;:1448,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2417482,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Grande balance industrielle dress&#233;e dans un paysage sombre. Le plateau de gauche, charg&#233; de blocs dor&#233;s, s'abaisse devant plusieurs dirigeants en costume ; le plateau de droite, presque vide, porte un simple panier au-dessus d'un groupe d'ouvriers. En arri&#232;re-plan apparaissent des chantiers historiques, un b&#226;timent public et le portrait fantomatique d'un ancien dirigeant cor&#233;en. Un anneau d'or bris&#233; entoure le pied fissur&#233; de la balance.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/206711135?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Grande balance industrielle dress&#233;e dans un paysage sombre. Le plateau de gauche, charg&#233; de blocs dor&#233;s, s'abaisse devant plusieurs dirigeants en costume ; le plateau de droite, presque vide, porte un simple panier au-dessus d'un groupe d'ouvriers. En arri&#232;re-plan apparaissent des chantiers historiques, un b&#226;timent public et le portrait fantomatique d'un ancien dirigeant cor&#233;en. Un anneau d'or bris&#233; entoure le pied fissur&#233; de la balance." title="Grande balance industrielle dress&#233;e dans un paysage sombre. Le plateau de gauche, charg&#233; de blocs dor&#233;s, s'abaisse devant plusieurs dirigeants en costume ; le plateau de droite, presque vide, porte un simple panier au-dessus d'un groupe d'ouvriers. En arri&#232;re-plan apparaissent des chantiers historiques, un b&#226;timent public et le portrait fantomatique d'un ancien dirigeant cor&#233;en. Un anneau d'or bris&#233; entoure le pied fissur&#233; de la balance." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZqZe!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZqZe!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZqZe!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZqZe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff96b785-bb95-41e5-ad4f-7126b00ae51b_1448x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">L&#8217;&#201;tat cor&#233;en a contribu&#233; &#224; b&#226;tir ses champions industriels. Face aux profits de l&#8217;IA, la balance entre rente priv&#233;e et dividende collectif reste profond&#233;ment d&#233;s&#233;quilibr&#233;e.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Le 29 juin, &#224; S&#233;oul, le pr&#233;sident Lee Jae-myung s&#8217;est inclin&#233;, presque &#224; quatre-vingt-dix degr&#233;s, devant les pr&#233;sidents de Samsung Electronics et de SK Group, les qualifiant &#224; la t&#233;l&#233;vision nationale de &#171; h&#233;ros nationaux &#187;. Les deux hommes ont pourtant chacun purg&#233; une peine de prison &#8212; Lee Jae-yong 207 jours pour le scandale Choi Soon-sil, Chey Tae-won quatre ans pour d&#233;tournement de fonds. Trois semaines plus t&#244;t, le chef de cabinet du m&#234;me pr&#233;sident proposait, sur Facebook, de ponctionner une partie de leurs profits pour financer un &#171; dividende national &#187;. Et dans quatre jours, le 16 juillet, une partie des propres salari&#233;s de Samsung doit manifester devant le si&#232;ge de l&#8217;entreprise &#8212; non pas contre la direction au nom de tous, mais contre une r&#233;partition interne des b&#233;n&#233;fices de l&#8217;IA qu&#8217;une partie d&#8217;entre eux juge profond&#233;ment injuste. Un m&#234;me pouvoir qui c&#233;l&#232;bre, qui r&#233;clame, et qui doit maintenant arbitrer une fracture qu&#8217;il n&#8217;avait pas anticip&#233;e. <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206710425">Nous avons d&#233;taill&#233; ailleurs</a> la m&#233;canique pr&#233;cise de ces primes et son co&#251;t pour la politique mon&#233;taire du pays ; il s&#8217;agit ici de la question qu&#8217;elles posent &#224; l&#8217;&#201;tat lui-m&#234;me.</p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p><strong>Dividende national</strong> &#8212; Expression avanc&#233;e le 12 mai 2026 par Kim Yong-beom, chef de cabinet du pr&#233;sident Lee Jae-myung, pour d&#233;signer un m&#233;canisme encore &#224; l&#8217;&#233;tat de principe : reverser &#224; l&#8217;ensemble des citoyens cor&#233;ens une part de l&#8217;exc&#233;dent fiscal g&#233;n&#233;r&#233; par les superprofits de Samsung et SK Hynix, au nom d&#8217;un socle industriel accumul&#233; collectivement par la nation depuis un demi-si&#232;cle. Ce n&#8217;est ni une loi, ni un budget vot&#233; : &#224; ce jour, aucun dispositif chiffr&#233; n&#8217;a &#233;t&#233; formalis&#233;, et l&#8217;id&#233;e reste contest&#233;e jusque dans le camp pr&#233;sidentiel.</p></div><h2>Deux entreprises, plus d&#8217;imp&#244;ts que tout le reste du pays r&#233;uni</h2><p>L&#8217;ampleur chiffr&#233;e rend la question presque in&#233;vitable. Samsung Electronics est projet&#233; &#224; environ 330 000 milliards de wons (=192,8 milliards d&#8217;euros) de b&#233;n&#233;fice d&#8217;exploitation pour 2026 ; SK Hynix, &#224; environ 239 000 milliards de wons [=139,6 milliards d&#8217;euros]. Si ces deux entreprises atteignent ces niveaux, leur imp&#244;t sur les soci&#233;t&#233;s combin&#233; pourrait d&#233;passer 100 000 milliards de wons[=58 milliards d&#8217;euros] &#8212; davantage que l&#8217;ensemble des recettes d&#8217;imp&#244;t sur les soci&#233;t&#233;s que l&#8217;&#201;tat cor&#233;en pr&#233;voit de collecter, toutes entreprises confondues, pour l&#8217;ann&#233;e enti&#232;re. Kim Yong-beom, chef de cabinet du pr&#233;sident pour les questions de politique &#233;conomique, r&#233;sume ce basculement en parlant du passage d&#8217;une &#233;conomie d&#8217;exportation classique &#224; une &#171; &#233;conomie de monopole technologique &#187;, o&#249; deux entreprises captent l&#8217;essentiel des gains d&#8217;un boom mondial.</p><h2>Cent contre un : l&#8217;aubaine devient une guerre civile interne</h2><p>Le conflit social le plus instructif ne se joue pas entre Samsung et ses salari&#233;s, mais entre les salari&#233;s de Samsung eux-m&#234;mes. Fin mai, apr&#232;s des semaines de tension et la menace d&#8217;une gr&#232;ve g&#233;n&#233;rale de dix-huit jours, l&#8217;entreprise a sign&#233; avec son syndicat majoritaire un accord instaurant un bonus sp&#233;cial &#233;quivalent &#224; 10,5 % du r&#233;sultat d&#8217;exploitation, sans plafond, pour la seule division des semi-conducteurs. Ratifi&#233; &#224; plus de 90 % de participation, cet accord promet aux salari&#233;s de la division m&#233;moire jusqu&#8217;&#224; 600 millions de wons &#8212; environ 350 000 euros &#8212; de prime cette ann&#233;e. Les salari&#233;s de la division grand public (smartphones, t&#233;l&#233;viseurs, &#233;lectrom&#233;nager), dont l&#8217;activit&#233; a longtemps soutenu les r&#233;sultats du groupe quand la m&#233;moire traversait ses propres creux de cycle, ne toucheront, eux, qu&#8217;environ 6 millions de wons [= 3 500 euros] en actions. Un &#233;cart de cent contre un, au sein de la m&#234;me entreprise.</p><p>Le syndicat de cette division, Donghaeng, exclu du vote au motif qu&#8217;il avait quitt&#233; la coalition de n&#233;gociation, a vu ses effectifs bondir de 2 600 &#224; environ 13 000 adh&#233;rents en quelques jours, a saisi la justice sans obtenir gain de cause dans l&#8217;urgence, et appelle d&#233;sormais &#224; un rassemblement le 16 juillet devant le si&#232;ge de Suwon. Son dirigeant, Park Jae-yong, a r&#233;sum&#233; l&#8217;enjeu en une phrase qui pourrait servir d&#8217;&#233;pigraphe &#224; tout le d&#233;bat cor&#233;en sur l&#8217;IA : &#171; Nous ne demandons pas une r&#233;compense excessive fond&#233;e sur la performance. Nous disons simplement qu&#8217;il ne devrait pas y avoir d&#8217;injustice au sein d&#8217;une m&#234;me entreprise. &#187; Des actionnaires minoritaires, regroup&#233;s au sein du Korea Shareholder Action Headquarters, menacent en parall&#232;le d&#8217;attaquer l&#8217;accord en justice, y voyant un dividende d&#233;guis&#233; vers&#233; sans leur aval, en violation du droit des soci&#233;t&#233;s.</p><p>Cette fracture interne fait &#233;cho &#224; une fracture plus large, &#224; l&#8217;&#233;chelle du pays : fin avril, une f&#233;d&#233;ration de petites entreprises rassemblant 47 000 adh&#233;rents avait d&#233;j&#224; manifest&#233; devant le m&#234;me site de Pyeongtaek &#8212; pour, en substance, supplier les ing&#233;nieurs de Samsung de renoncer &#224; leur propre mouvement, tant l&#8217;&#233;cart entre leurs primes potentielles et la situation des commerces de proximit&#233; leur paraissait insoutenable. Que la m&#234;me tension rejoue aujourd&#8217;hui &#224; l&#8217;int&#233;rieur d&#8217;une seule entreprise, entre deux divisions du m&#234;me groupe, montre qu&#8217;elle ne tient pas &#224; une rivalit&#233; entre secteurs, mais &#224; la nature m&#234;me de l&#8217;aubaine : une rente de conjoncture internationale, sans rapport avec le m&#233;rite relatif de qui que ce soit.</p><h2>Un dividende national propos&#233;, d&#233;menti, rest&#233; au milieu du gu&#233;</h2><p>Le 12 mai, Kim Yong-beom &#233;crivait sur Facebook que les fruits de l&#8217;&#232;re de l&#8217;IA &#171; ne sont pas le r&#233;sultat de quelques entreprises en particulier &#187;, mais reposent sur un socle industriel accumul&#233; collectivement par la nation depuis un demi-si&#232;cle &#8212; et qu&#8217;&#224; ce titre, une part devait &#234;tre structurellement rendue &#224; l&#8217;ensemble des citoyens sous forme de &#171; dividende national &#187;. Le KOSPI a chut&#233; de 5,1 % en intrajournali&#232;re avant de se redresser partiellement, Samsung et SK Hynix menant la baisse. La pr&#233;sidence a pr&#233;cis&#233;, dans l&#8217;heure, qu&#8217;il s&#8217;agissait d&#8217;une opinion personnelle, sans lien avec une d&#233;cision engag&#233;e.</p><p>L&#8217;opposition, elle, n&#8217;a pas m&#233;nag&#233; ses mots. Ko Dong-jin, d&#233;put&#233; du Parti du pouvoir populaire (PPP, conservateur) et ancien pr&#233;sident de Samsung Electronics, a d&#233;nonc&#233; une d&#233;rive populiste mena&#231;ant selon lui les fondements de l&#8217;&#233;conomie de march&#233;, exhortant le gouvernement &#224; cesser un comportement qui, selon lui, ne fait que renforcer la tentation des entreprises de quitter le pays. Le secr&#233;taire g&#233;n&#233;ral du parti, Jeong Hee-yong, est all&#233; plus loin, comparant l&#8217;id&#233;e &#224; une &#171; distribution de type socialiste &#187; et r&#233;clamant le limogeage pur et simple de Kim Yong-beom, qu&#8217;il tenait pour responsable du choc inflig&#233; aux march&#233;s. Un troisi&#232;me &#233;lu du parti, Park Soo-young, a r&#233;sum&#233; l&#8217;objection la plus simple : &#171; Si les gens veulent des dividendes, ils peuvent devenir actionnaires &#187; &#8212; n&#8217;importe qui pouvant, selon lui, acheter des actions Samsung ou SK Hynix pour b&#233;n&#233;ficier &#224; ce titre des retours sur performance de l&#8217;entreprise.</p><p>Le d&#233;bat n&#8217;en est pas rest&#233; l&#224; pour autant. Le 10 juin, dans un entretien &#224; <em>The Economist</em>, le pr&#233;sident Lee Jae-myung a lui-m&#234;me jug&#233; n&#233;cessaires de nouveaux m&#233;canismes, dont un revenu de base, pour reverser au public une partie des &#171; profits exc&#233;dentaires &#187; de l&#8217;IA. Le 2 juillet, il a reformul&#233; l&#8217;enjeu en des termes plus larges encore, parlant d&#8217;une &#171; polarisation en K &#187; &#224; corriger et annon&#231;ant des mesures pour aider les jeunes &#224; se constituer un patrimoine &#8212; sans qu&#8217;aucun m&#233;canisme budg&#233;taire concret n&#8217;ait, &#224; ce jour, &#233;t&#233; pos&#233; sur la table. Le ministre du Travail, lui, a propos&#233; d&#8217;&#233;largir le partage bien au-del&#224; des seuls salari&#233;s : aux 1 700 fournisseurs de Samsung, et aux collectivit&#233;s locales qui fournissent eau et &#233;lectricit&#233; aux usines. Deux mois apr&#232;s le post initial, le dividende national reste donc un principe d&#233;battu, pas une politique arr&#234;t&#233;e &#8212; et un principe qui n&#8217;a, &#224; ce stade, convaincu ni la droite cor&#233;enne ni les march&#233;s.</p><h2>L&#8217;&#201;tat a construit les chaebols : peut-il aujourd&#8217;hui r&#233;clamer sa part ?</h2><p>Les faits, d&#8217;abord. Les &#171; Trois Super Projets &#187; du gouvernement Lee &#8212; semi-conducteurs, centres de donn&#233;es IA, IA physique, r&#233;unis sous le nom de &#171; Project Trinity &#187; &#8212; ont &#233;t&#233; annonc&#233;s le 29 juin, avec un engagement combin&#233; de Samsung et SK Hynix, aux c&#244;t&#233;s de leurs fournisseurs, d&#8217;investir environ 800 000 milliards de wons (pr&#232;s de 468 milliards d&#8217;euros) dans deux nouveaux complexes de fabrication dans le sud-ouest du pays, en &#233;change d&#8217;un soutien de l&#8217;&#201;tat en &#233;nergie, en eau et en foncier. Un commentateur a explicitement trac&#233;, &#224; cette occasion, un parall&#232;le avec les plans quinquennaux de l&#8217;&#232;re Park Chung-hee, quand l&#8217;&#201;tat dirigeait le cr&#233;dit bancaire vers les chaebols naissants selon une logique de &#171; transfusion &#187;. La diff&#233;rence tient &#224; la source du capital : hier, l&#8217;argent venait de pr&#234;ts garantis par l&#8217;&#201;tat ; aujourd&#8217;hui, il vient des surprofits propres de Samsung et SK, mais toujours sous coordination gouvernementale &#233;troite.</p><p>Il nous semble, au-del&#224; de ce constat, que cette continuit&#233; historique est pr&#233;cis&#233;ment ce qui rend l&#8217;id&#233;e d&#8217;un dividende national moins incongrue en Cor&#233;e qu&#8217;elle ne le serait ailleurs &#8212; mais c&#8217;est une lecture que nous proposons, pas un argument qu&#8217;aucune des sources consult&#233;es ne formule explicitement en ces termes : aucun responsable politique cor&#233;en n&#8217;a, &#224; notre connaissance, justifi&#233; publiquement le dividende national par un rappel de l&#8217;h&#233;ritage planificateur de l&#8217;&#201;tat. Le raisonnement est le suivant : les chaebols ne sont pas des entreprises n&#233;es du seul march&#233;, mais historiquement des instruments de politique industrielle devenus des groupes priv&#233;s ; r&#233;clamer aujourd&#8217;hui une part de leur rente ne serait donc pas, dans cette optique, une expropriation, mais la reformulation d&#8217;un contrat d&#233;j&#224; ancien entre l&#8217;&#201;tat et ses champions. C&#8217;est une hypoth&#232;se de lecture, pas un fait &#233;tabli par le d&#233;bat public cor&#233;en tel qu&#8217;il se documente aujourd&#8217;hui.</p><h2>Ni la Norv&#232;ge, ni le Golfe : un cas sans &#233;quivalent</h2><p>Kim Yong-beom a lui-m&#234;me invoqu&#233; le fonds souverain norv&#233;gien comme point de comparaison, tout en reconnaissant que la situation cor&#233;enne &#171; diff&#232;re par sa nature &#187;. La diff&#233;rence est en effet d&#233;cisive : la Norv&#232;ge, comme les p&#233;tromonarchies du Golfe, redistribue une rente tir&#233;e de ressources qui appartiennent d&#233;j&#224;, par construction, &#224; l&#8217;&#201;tat &#8212; le p&#233;trole et le gaz extraits du sous-sol national. En Cor&#233;e, la manne appartient &#224; des entreprises priv&#233;es, cot&#233;es en Bourse, avec des actionnaires internationaux. Il n&#8217;existe donc aucun m&#233;canisme de propri&#233;t&#233; qui permette &#224; l&#8217;&#201;tat de simplement pr&#233;lever sa part, comme il le ferait sur une compagnie p&#233;troli&#232;re nationale. Tout doit passer par la fiscalit&#233; ordinaire, la n&#233;gociation collective, ou une forme de pression morale et politique &#8212; ce qui explique &#224; la fois la fragilit&#233; du projet de Kim Yong-beom et son originalit&#233; : la Cor&#233;e n&#8217;applique pas un m&#233;canisme comptable existant ailleurs, elle en invente un.</p><h2>Ce que le 16 juillet va r&#233;v&#233;ler</h2><p>Le 29 juin, le pr&#233;sident s&#8217;inclinait devant deux hommes qu&#8217;il qualifiait de h&#233;ros nationaux. Le 16 juillet, une partie des salari&#233;s de l&#8217;un de ces deux groupes doit descendre dans la rue pour contester la mani&#232;re dont ces m&#234;mes largesses se r&#233;partissent entre eux. Entre les deux dates, un d&#233;bat national sur la l&#233;gitimit&#233; d&#8217;une redistribution plus large reste ouvert, sans r&#233;ponse arr&#234;t&#233;e. La question pos&#233;e par ce dossier d&#233;passe donc le seul cas cor&#233;en : un pays qui a construit ses propres champions industriels par la planification d&#8217;&#201;tat est-il en train d&#8217;inventer, sous la contrainte d&#8217;une concentration in&#233;dite des gains de l&#8217;IA, une redistribution nationale sans pr&#233;c&#233;dent dans une &#233;conomie de march&#233; d&#233;velopp&#233;e ? La fracture qui s&#8217;ouvre aujourd&#8217;hui entre la division m&#233;moire et la division grand public de Samsung n&#8217;est-elle que le premier signe que cette rente, pr&#233;cis&#233;ment parce qu&#8217;elle est trop concentr&#233;e pour &#234;tre dig&#233;r&#233;e en silence, finira par diviser plus qu&#8217;elle ne redistribue ? Ou bien l&#8217;opposition d&#233;j&#224; organis&#233;e &#224; droite suffira-t-elle simplement &#224; enterrer l&#8217;id&#233;e, comme elle en a enterr&#233; tant d&#8217;autres avant elle &#8212; auquel cas ce dossier n&#8217;aura document&#233; qu&#8217;un d&#233;bat de plus, sans lendemain budg&#233;taire ?</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Sources : The Korea Times, The Korea Herald, Seoul Economic Daily, Bloomberg, CNBC, Reuters (via Korea Herald), The Investor, TradingKey, BigGo Finance, Asia Business Daily, Seoulz, Yonhap.</em></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Toutes nos publications sont gratuites et en Copyleft. Elles peuvent &#234;tre republi&#233;es, int&#233;gralement ou partiellement, aux conditions suivantes :<br>&#8594; respect de l&#8217;intitul&#233; et du contenu<br>(texte, images, notes d&#8217;&#233;diteur ou de traducteur, encadr&#233;s)<br>&#8594;</strong> <strong>indication du ou des auteurs et/ou traducteurs<br>&#8594; lien cliquable vers la source.<br>Toute mon&#233;tisation ou utilisation commerciale de ces publications est exclue et fera l&#8217;objet de poursuites.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Korea 4/4] The State Built the Chaebols: Can It Now Claim Its Share of AI?]]></title><description><![CDATA[At Samsung, a hundred-to-one bonus gap is tearing the company apart]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/korea-44-the-state-built-the-chaebols</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/korea-44-the-state-built-the-chaebols</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 14 Jul 2026 05:01:41 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NZmu!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206724119">English</a> - <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/faustotounsi/p/corea-44-el-estado-construyo-los-2a0">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206711135">Fran&#231;ais</a></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NZmu!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NZmu!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NZmu!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NZmu!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NZmu!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NZmu!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png" width="1448" height="1086" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1086,&quot;width&quot;:1448,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2417482,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;A large industrial balance stands in a dark landscape. The left-hand pan, loaded with golden blocks, hangs low before several suited executives; the nearly empty right-hand pan holds a simple basket above a group of workers. Historical construction sites, a public building and the ghostly portrait of a former Korean leader appear in the background. A broken gold ring surrounds the cracked base of the balance.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/206724119?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="A large industrial balance stands in a dark landscape. The left-hand pan, loaded with golden blocks, hangs low before several suited executives; the nearly empty right-hand pan holds a simple basket above a group of workers. Historical construction sites, a public building and the ghostly portrait of a former Korean leader appear in the background. A broken gold ring surrounds the cracked base of the balance." title="A large industrial balance stands in a dark landscape. The left-hand pan, loaded with golden blocks, hangs low before several suited executives; the nearly empty right-hand pan holds a simple basket above a group of workers. Historical construction sites, a public building and the ghostly portrait of a former Korean leader appear in the background. A broken gold ring surrounds the cracked base of the balance." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NZmu!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NZmu!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NZmu!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NZmu!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b551257-ff6f-44d6-9aeb-1078dc84e735_1448x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The Korean state helped build its industrial champions. As AI profits surge, the balance between private windfalls and a collective dividend remains profoundly unequal.</figcaption></figure></div><p>On June 29, in Seoul, President Lee Jae-myung bowed, almost at a ninety-degree angle, before the chairmen of Samsung Electronics and SK Group, calling them &#8220;national heroes&#8221; on national television. Both men have nonetheless served prison time &#8212; Lee Jae-yong 207 days over the Choi Soon-sil scandal, Chey Tae-won four years for embezzlement. Three weeks earlier, the same president&#8217;s chief policy secretary had proposed, on Facebook, taking a cut of their profits to fund a &#8220;national dividend.&#8221; And in four days, on July 16, some of Samsung&#8217;s own employees are set to march outside the company&#8217;s headquarters &#8212; not against management on behalf of everyone, but against an internal split of AI profits that some of them consider deeply unfair. The same authority that celebrates, and that now claims a share, must also arbitrate a rift it never saw coming. <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206722543">We covered elsewhere</a> the precise mechanics of these bonuses and their cost to the country&#8217;s monetary policy; here, the question is what they mean for the state itself.</p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p><strong>National dividend</strong> &#8212; A phrase put forward on May 12, 2026 by Kim Yong-beom, chief policy secretary to President Lee Jae-myung, to describe a mechanism still at the level of a principle: returning to all Korean citizens a share of the tax windfall generated by Samsung&#8217;s and SK Hynix&#8217;s outsized profits, in the name of an industrial base built up collectively by the nation over half a century. It is neither a law nor a passed budget: to date, no costed scheme has been formalized, and the idea remains contested even within the president&#8217;s own camp.</p></div><h2>Two Companies, More Tax Than the Rest of the Country Combined</h2><p>The sheer scale makes the question almost unavoidable. Samsung Electronics is projected to post roughly 330 trillion won ($220 billion) in operating profit for 2026; SK Hynix, around 239 trillion won. If both companies hit these levels, their combined corporate tax bill could exceed 100 trillion won &#8212; more than the entire corporate tax revenue the Korean state expects to collect, across all companies, for the whole year. Kim Yong-beom, the president&#8217;s chief policy secretary, sums up this shift by describing a move away from a classic export economy toward a &#8220;technology monopoly economy,&#8221; in which two companies capture nearly all the gains of a global boom.</p><h2>A Hundred to One: The Windfall Turns Into an Internal Civil War</h2><p>The most revealing social conflict here is not between Samsung and its employees, but among Samsung&#8217;s employees themselves. In late May, after weeks of tension and the threat of an 18-day general strike, the company signed an agreement with its majority union setting a special bonus equal to 10.5% of operating profit, with no cap, for the semiconductor division alone. Ratified with more than 90% turnout, the agreement promises memory-division employees up to 600 million won &#8212; roughly $400,000 &#8212; in bonus this year. Employees in the consumer division (smartphones, TVs, home appliances), whose business long propped up the group&#8217;s results whenever memory went through its own cyclical troughs, will get only around 6 million won in shares. A hundred-to-one gap, within the same company.</p><p>The union representing that division, Donghaeng, excluded from the vote on the grounds that it had left the bargaining coalition, saw its membership jump from 2,600 to roughly 13,000 in a matter of days, went to court without securing urgent relief, and is now calling for a rally on July 16 outside the Suwon headquarters. Its leader, Park Jae-yong, summed up the stakes in a line that could serve as an epigraph for Korea&#8217;s entire AI debate: &#8220;We are not demanding excessive rewards based on performance. We are simply saying there should be no unfairness within the same company.&#8221; Minority shareholders, organized under the Korea Shareholder Action Headquarters, are separately threatening to sue over the agreement, viewing it as a disguised dividend paid without their approval, in violation of corporate law.</p><p>This internal rift echoes a broader one, at the scale of the whole country: in late April, a federation of small businesses with 47,000 members had already protested outside that same Pyeongtaek site &#8212; essentially begging Samsung&#8217;s engineers to give up their own movement, so unbearable did the gap between their potential bonuses and the state of local shops appear. That the same tension is now replaying itself inside a single company, between two divisions of the same group, shows that it has nothing to do with rivalry between industries, and everything to do with the nature of the windfall itself: a rent born of international circumstance, unrelated to anyone&#8217;s relative merit.</p><h2>A National Dividend Proposed, Denied, Left Halfway Across the Ford</h2><p>On May 12, Kim Yong-beom wrote on Facebook that the fruits of the AI era &#8220;are not the result of a few individual companies,&#8221; but rest on an industrial base built up collectively by the nation over half a century &#8212; and that, as such, a share ought to be structurally returned to all citizens in the form of a &#8220;national dividend.&#8221; The KOSPI fell 5.1% intraday before partially recovering, with Samsung and SK Hynix leading the decline. Within the hour, the presidency clarified that this was a personal opinion, unconnected to any decision actually under way.</p><p>The opposition, for its part, did not mince words. Ko Dong-jin, a lawmaker from the conservative People Power Party (PPP) and a former president of Samsung Electronics, denounced what he called a populist drift threatening the foundations of the market economy, urging the government to stop behavior that, in his view, only strengthens companies&#8217; temptation to leave the country. The party&#8217;s secretary-general, Jeong Hee-yong, went further, comparing the idea to a &#8220;socialist-style distribution&#8221; and calling for Kim Yong-beom&#8217;s outright dismissal, holding him responsible for the shock inflicted on the markets. A third party lawmaker, Park Soo-young, summed up the simplest objection: &#8220;If people want dividends, they can become shareholders&#8221; &#8212; anyone, in his view, being free to buy Samsung or SK Hynix shares to benefit, on that basis, from the companies&#8217; returns.</p><p>The debate did not end there, however. On June 10, in an interview with <em>The Economist</em>, President Lee Jae-myung himself said new mechanisms, including a basic income, were needed to return part of AI&#8217;s &#8220;excess profits&#8221; to the public. On July 2, he reframed the issue in even broader terms, speaking of a &#8220;K-shaped polarization&#8221; that needed correcting and announcing measures to help young people build up assets &#8212; without any concrete budgetary mechanism having been put on the table to date. The labor minister, for his part, proposed extending the sharing well beyond employees alone: to Samsung&#8217;s 1,700 suppliers, and to the local communities that supply water and electricity to the plants. Two months after the original post, the national dividend thus remains a principle under debate, not a settled policy &#8212; and a principle that, at this stage, has convinced neither the Korean right nor the markets.</p><h2>The State Built the Chaebols: Can It Now Claim Its Share?</h2><p>The facts, first. The Lee government&#8217;s &#8220;Three Super Projects&#8221; &#8212; semiconductors, AI data centers, physical AI, grouped under the name &#8220;Project Trinity&#8221; &#8212; were announced on June 29, with a combined commitment from Samsung and SK Hynix, alongside their suppliers, to invest roughly 800 trillion won (nearly $520 billion) in two new fabrication complexes in the country&#8217;s southwest, in exchange for state support on energy, water, and land. One commentator explicitly drew, on that occasion, a parallel with the five-year plans of the Park Chung-hee era, when the state directed bank credit toward the fledgling chaebols under a &#8220;transfusion&#8221; logic. The difference lies in where the capital comes from: back then, the money came from state-guaranteed loans; today, it comes from Samsung&#8217;s and SK&#8217;s own excess profits, though still under close government coordination.</p><p>Beyond that observation, it seems to us that this historical continuity is precisely what makes the idea of a national dividend less incongruous in Korea than it would be elsewhere &#8212; but this is a reading we are proposing, not an argument that any of the sources we consulted states explicitly in these terms: as far as we know, no Korean political figure has publicly justified the national dividend by invoking the state&#8217;s planning legacy. The reasoning runs as follows: the chaebols are not companies born of the market alone, but historically instruments of industrial policy that became private groups; claiming a share of their rent today would not, in this view, be an expropriation, but the reformulation of an already old contract between the state and its champions. This is a hypothesis for reading the situation, not a fact established by Korean public debate as it currently stands.</p><h2>Neither Norway Nor the Gulf: A Case With No Real Equivalent</h2><p>Kim Yong-beom himself invoked Norway&#8217;s sovereign wealth fund as a point of comparison, while acknowledging that Korea&#8217;s situation &#8220;differs in nature.&#8221; The difference is indeed decisive: Norway, like the Gulf&#8217;s oil monarchies, redistributes a rent drawn from resources that already belong, by design, to the state &#8212; oil extracted from the national subsoil. In Korea, the windfall belongs to private, publicly listed companies with international shareholders. There is therefore no ownership mechanism that would let the state simply take its share, the way it would with a national oil company. Everything has to go through ordinary taxation, collective bargaining, or some form of moral and political pressure &#8212; which explains both the fragility of Kim Yong-beom&#8217;s proposal and its originality: Korea is not applying an accounting mechanism that exists elsewhere, it is inventing one.</p><h2>What July 16 Will Reveal</h2><p>On June 29, the president was bowing before two men he called national heroes. On July 16, some of the employees of one of those two groups are set to take to the streets to challenge the way those same riches are being split among themselves. Between the two dates, a national debate over the legitimacy of broader redistribution remains open, with no settled answer. The question this dossier raises, then, goes beyond the Korean case alone: is a country that built its own industrial champions through state planning now inventing, under the pressure of an unprecedented concentration of AI gains, a form of national redistribution with no precedent in a developed market economy? Is the rift now opening between Samsung&#8217;s memory division and its consumer division only the first sign that this rent, precisely because it is too concentrated to be absorbed quietly, will end up dividing more than it redistributes? Or will the opposition already organized on the right simply be enough to bury the idea, as it has buried so many others before it &#8212; in which case this dossier will have documented nothing more than one more debate, with no budgetary sequel?</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Sources: The Korea Times, The Korea Herald, Seoul Economic Daily, Bloomberg, CNBC, Reuters (via Korea Herald), The Investor, TradingKey, BigGo Finance, Asia Business Daily, Seoulz, Yonhap.</em></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>All our publications are free and Copyleft. They may be republished, in whole or in part, under following conditions:</strong><br><strong>&#8594; keeping the title and content</strong><br><strong>(text, images, editor&#8217;s or translator&#8217;s notes, boxes)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; crediting the author(s) and/or translator(s)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; inserting a clickable link to the source.</strong><br><strong>Any monetization or commercial use of these publications is prohibited and will be subject to legal action.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Korea 3/4] From Pyeongtaek to Icheon: Who Actually Benefits from the AI Windfall?]]></title><description><![CDATA[At SK Hynix, bonuses the Bank of Korea is watching as an inflation risk]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/korea-34-from-pyeongtaek-to-icheon</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/korea-34-from-pyeongtaek-to-icheon</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 13 Jul 2026 18:00:38 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wC6g!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206722543">English</a> - <a href="https://faustotounsi.substack.com/publish/post/206723289">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206710425">Fran&#231;ais</a></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wC6g!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wC6g!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wC6g!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wC6g!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wC6g!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wC6g!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png" width="1448" height="1086" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1086,&quot;width&quot;:1448,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2374206,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;A monumental electronic chip glows at the centre of a broken gold ring, sending out streams of golden energy. An industrial site under construction stands on the left; an institutional building and a financial chart appear on the right. Workers in blue face executives in suits, while a large gauge in the foreground approaches the red zone.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/206722543?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="A monumental electronic chip glows at the centre of a broken gold ring, sending out streams of golden energy. An industrial site under construction stands on the left; an institutional building and a financial chart appear on the right. Workers in blue face executives in suits, while a large gauge in the foreground approaches the red zone." title="A monumental electronic chip glows at the centre of a broken gold ring, sending out streams of golden energy. An industrial site under construction stands on the left; an institutional building and a financial chart appear on the right. Workers in blue face executives in suits, while a large gauge in the foreground approaches the red zone." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wC6g!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wC6g!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wC6g!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wC6g!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe102bec9-d8e4-4d7b-a100-c4d857c1ef8a_1448x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">At the heart of the AI supercycle, the chip channels its windfall towards investment, labour and capital &#8212; raising pressure across the entire Korean economy.</figcaption></figure></div><p>At SK Hynix, the average performance bonus could reach $477,000 per employee this year, and close to $900,000 next year if forecasts hold &#8212; across a workforce of 35,000 people, not a handful of executives. The Bank of Korea, for its part, judged these same bonuses massive enough to flag them, in an official report, as a risk to the entire country&#8217;s price stability. Between the two lies exactly the question the Hyundai union was raising when it cited Samsung as a benchmark in our first article: this windfall &#8212; how is it actually being split?</p><h2>A Supercycle That Changed Everything in Two Years</h2><p>The trigger is well known: demand for high-bandwidth memory (HBM), essential to AI accelerators, has pushed prices for the new HBM4 chips up 20% to 30% compared with the previous generation. What&#8217;s less well known is the speed of the reversal. In 2024, Samsung paid <strong>no</strong> performance bonus at all to its chip division, then in the red after the 2023 memory-market downturn. Two years later, that same division is negotiating a bonus worth up to 15% of its operating profit. That&#8217;s not progress &#8212; it&#8217;s a complete erasure of the previous cycle, in the span of twenty-four months.</p><h2>SK Hynix Scraps Its Cap, Samsung Negotiates Under Tension</h2><p>Korea&#8217;s two memory giants took opposite paths. SK Hynix scrapped, as early as September 2025, the cap on its profit-linked bonuses, committing to hand back 10% of its annual operating profit &#8212; hence the $477,000 projected per employee this year.</p><p>At Samsung, the path was rockier. The union was demanding 15% of the semiconductor division&#8217;s operating profit; management offered 10%, an offer rejected in April, followed by a rally at the Pyeongtaek plant and a company request for an injunction against the movement. The agreement finally signed on May 20, just hours before an 18-day general strike, set the bonus at 10.5% of the division&#8217;s operating profit, with no cap, paid in shares locked up for one to two years &#8212; with an operating-profit target of 200 trillion won for 2026-2028, dropping to 100 trillion won from 2029 onward. That scheduled drop in the threshold is no small detail: it signals that the company itself does not expect the current supercycle to last indefinitely.</p><h2>Invest, Pay Out to Shareholders, or Pay the Workers</h2><p>These profits aren&#8217;t going only to employees. Samsung and SK Hynix have announced a joint investment of roughly 800 trillion won ($517 billion) with their suppliers to build two new manufacturing complexes &#8212; the heaviest, and least publicly discussed, share of how these profits are being split.</p><p>The shareholders&#8217; share, meanwhile, has become an unexpected battleground. The Korea Shareholder Action Headquarters, a minority-shareholder advocacy group, has threatened to sue over Samsung&#8217;s wage agreement, arguing that setting aside a fixed share of operating profit for employees amounts to a disguised dividend, paid out without the shareholder approval normally required under Korean corporate law. In other words: whether this windfall should benefit shareholders or employees first is no longer just a matter of economic-policy debate &#8212; it has become an active corporate-law dispute in Korea.</p><h2>When an Employee&#8217;s Bonus Becomes a Monetary-Policy Variable</h2><p>On June 17, the Bank of Korea explicitly flagged these bonuses at Samsung and SK Hynix as a risk to price stability: variable pay in the IT sector jumped 60.6% year-on-year in the first quarter, compared with 2.1% for the rest of the economy &#8212; a gap judged wide enough to factor into the central bank&#8217;s policy decisions, which kept its rate at 2.50% in May while raising its inflation forecast to 2.7% for the year, above its 2% target. This is no longer a matter of internal labor relations at two companies: it has become a national macroeconomic variable.</p><h2>Hyundai Electronics, Before It Became SK Hynix</h2><p>One last fact closes the loop with the rest of this series. SK Hynix was founded in 1983 under the name Hyundai Electronics, a division of the Hyundai group &#8212; the very same group whose social battle over Atlas robots we followed in our first two articles. After the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the company absorbed LG Semiconductor, was spun off from the Hyundai group in 2003, and was acquired by SK in 2012.</p><p>On July 11 &#8212; yesterday, as these lines are being written &#8212; SK Hynix raised $26.5 billion by listing on the Nasdaq through American depositary receipts: the largest-ever share sale by a foreign company on U.S. soil. The stock jumped about 13% on its first day of trading, with an intraday peak of +19%, buoyed by investor appetite for anything AI-related. It ranks as the third-largest IPO in history by size, behind Saudi Aramco ($29.4 billion in 2019) but ahead of Alibaba (roughly $25 billion in 2014) &#8212; coming only weeks after SpaceX&#8217;s record-setting IPO in June. SK Hynix&#8217;s Seoul-listed shares, meanwhile, have more than septupled over the past year, and the company overtook Samsung as Korea&#8217;s most valuable company as early as June. Chey Tae-won, chairman of the SK Group &#8212; the very same man whose embezzlement conviction is noted in this series&#8217; next article &#8212; told Bloomberg Television that the group would remain open to further U.S. share offerings if returns hold up. One more sign that the company born inside Hyundai has become, four decades later, one of the most strategic suppliers to the world&#8217;s AI infrastructure &#8212; and one of Wall Street&#8217;s most sought-after names.</p><h2>What This Mechanism Doesn&#8217;t Settle</h2><p>One question remains that neither the bonus figures, nor the shareholder litigation, nor the Bank of Korea&#8217;s vigilance can settle: should this windfall &#8212; concentrated in two companies and a single sector &#8212; remain a strictly private matter between each company and its stakeholders (employees, shareholders, suppliers), or does it call for arbitration at the scale of the entire country? That is the question posed, even more directly, by Korea&#8217;s political debate over a &#8220;national dividend&#8221; &#8212; which we take up in our next article.</p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><h2>Appendix &#8212; Is a $500,000-a-Head Bonus a World Record?</h2><p>The closest comparison we were able to document with solid figures is Wall Street, at the peak of its 2006-2009 cycle. At Goldman Sachs, average total compensation per employee (base salary and bonus combined, across a workforce of roughly 29,400 to 30,000 people &#8212; a scale comparable to SK Hynix&#8217;s roughly 35,000 employees) reached $622,000 in 2006, then $662,000 in 2007, before estimates put the figure at $609,000-$688,000 per head for 2009. In raw magnitude, then, a comparable order of magnitude already existed nearly twenty years ago.</p><p>Two caveats, however, rule out treating this as a strict equivalence. First, the Goldman Sachs figure measures <em>total</em> compensation (salary plus bonus), across a highly unequal hierarchy in which a handful of partners and traders pull the average sharply upward &#8212; there is no guarantee the &#8220;average&#8221; employee actually took home that amount. Korean bonuses, by contrast, are paid on top of a base salary, within pay structures that are far more compressed &#8212; suggesting a broader, more evenly spread distribution of the amount.</p><p>Second, an intuitive comparison doesn&#8217;t hold up under scrutiny: the Gulf&#8217;s national oil companies during their own booms. Available compensation data for Saudi Aramco show performance bonuses averaging roughly 30,000 to 40,000 Saudi riyals, or about $8,000 to $11,000 &#8212; nowhere near the Korean figures, despite otherwise generous benefits (housing, education, a Ramadan bonus).</p><p>The soundest conclusion: the level of Korean bonuses is nothing like an absolute record when set against market finance at the peak of its cycle. What does appear to be genuinely unprecedented is seeing this happen in a manufacturing sector &#8212; a semiconductor plant, not a trading floor &#8212; among a production workforce, rather than an elite of traders.</p><p><em>Left out for lack of verifiable data: Qatar Petroleum, ADNOC, and other Gulf national oil companies, for which we found no comparable, usable compensation figures.</em></p></div><div><hr></div><p><em>Sources: The Korea Times, The Korea Herald, Bloomberg, CNBC, Reuters (via Korea Herald), TradingKey, Tom&#8217;s Hardware, Fortune, Seoul Economic Daily.</em></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>All our publications are free and Copyleft. They may be republished, in whole or in part, under following conditions:</strong><br><strong>&#8594; keeping the title and content</strong><br><strong>(text, images, editor&#8217;s or translator&#8217;s notes, boxes)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; crediting the author(s) and/or translator(s)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; inserting a clickable link to the source.</strong><br><strong>Any monetization or commercial use of these publications is prohibited and will be subject to legal action.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Corée 3/4] De Pyeongtaek à Icheon : à qui profite la manne de l’IA ?]]></title><description><![CDATA[Chez SK Hynix, des primes que la Banque de Cor&#233;e surveille comme un risque d&#8217;inflation]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-34-de-pyeongtaek-a-icheon-a</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-34-de-pyeongtaek-a-icheon-a</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 13 Jul 2026 18:00:37 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DKQ6!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0adfe980-9173-4555-b695-ac642ff6fa04_1448x1086.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206722543">Englis</a>h - <a href="https://faustotounsi.substack.com/publish/post/206723289">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206710425">Fran&#231;ais</a></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong><span data-color="#cc0000" style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">Dossier Cor&#233;e du Sud</span></strong></p><ol><li><p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-14-de-wolfsburg-a-ulsan-qui">De Wolfsburg &#224; Ulsan : qui a encore le pouvoir de dire non ?</a></p></li><li><p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-24-metaplant-la-vitrine-dhier">Metaplant, la vitrine d&#8217;hier : comment Hyundai a perdu la main sur sa propre trajectoire</a></p></li><li><p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-34-de-pyeongtaek-a-icheon-a">De Pyeongtaek &#224; Icheon : &#224; qui profite la manne de l&#8217;IA ?</a></p></li><li><p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-44-letat-a-bati-les-chaebols">L&#8217;&#201;tat a b&#226;ti les chaebols : peut-il aujourd&#8217;hui r&#233;clamer sa part de l&#8217;IA ?</a></p></li></ol></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DKQ6!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0adfe980-9173-4555-b695-ac642ff6fa04_1448x1086.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DKQ6!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0adfe980-9173-4555-b695-ac642ff6fa04_1448x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DKQ6!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0adfe980-9173-4555-b695-ac642ff6fa04_1448x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DKQ6!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0adfe980-9173-4555-b695-ac642ff6fa04_1448x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DKQ6!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0adfe980-9173-4555-b695-ac642ff6fa04_1448x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DKQ6!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0adfe980-9173-4555-b695-ac642ff6fa04_1448x1086.png" width="1448" height="1086" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0adfe980-9173-4555-b695-ac642ff6fa04_1448x1086.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1086,&quot;width&quot;:1448,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2374206,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Une puce &#233;lectronique monumentale rayonne au centre d'un anneau d'or bris&#233; et diffuse des flux d'&#233;nergie dor&#233;e. &#192; gauche se dresse un site industriel en construction ; &#224; droite, un b&#226;timent institutionnel et un graphique financier. 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Des ouvriers en bleu font face &#224; des dirigeants en costume, tandis qu'un grand cadran au premier plan approche de la zone rouge." title="Une puce &#233;lectronique monumentale rayonne au centre d'un anneau d'or bris&#233; et diffuse des flux d'&#233;nergie dor&#233;e. &#192; gauche se dresse un site industriel en construction ; &#224; droite, un b&#226;timent institutionnel et un graphique financier. Des ouvriers en bleu font face &#224; des dirigeants en costume, tandis qu'un grand cadran au premier plan approche de la zone rouge." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DKQ6!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0adfe980-9173-4555-b695-ac642ff6fa04_1448x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DKQ6!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0adfe980-9173-4555-b695-ac642ff6fa04_1448x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DKQ6!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0adfe980-9173-4555-b695-ac642ff6fa04_1448x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DKQ6!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0adfe980-9173-4555-b695-ac642ff6fa04_1448x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Au centre du supercycle de l&#8217;IA, la puce redistribue sa manne entre investissements, salari&#233;s et capital &#8212; jusqu&#8217;&#224; faire monter la pression sur toute l&#8217;&#233;conomie cor&#233;enne.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Chez SK Hynix, la prime de performance moyenne pourrait atteindre 477 000 dollars [=418 000 euros] par salari&#233; cette ann&#233;e, et pr&#232;s de 900 000 dollars [= 830 000 euros]  l&#8217;an prochain si les pr&#233;visions se confirment &#8212; sur un effectif de 35 000 personnes, pas une poign&#233;e de dirigeants. La Banque de Cor&#233;e, de son c&#244;t&#233;, a jug&#233; ces m&#234;mes primes suffisamment massives pour les signaler, dans un rapport officiel, comme un risque pour la stabilit&#233; des prix de tout le pays. Entre les deux, c&#8217;est tr&#232;s exactement la question que posait le syndicat de Hyundai en citant Samsung comme r&#233;f&#233;rence dans notre premier article : cette manne, comment se partage-t-elle r&#233;ellement ?</p><h2>Un supercycle qui a tout chang&#233; en deux ans</h2><p>Le d&#233;clencheur est connu : la demande de m&#233;moire &#224; haute bande passante (HBM), indispensable aux acc&#233;l&#233;rateurs d&#8217;intelligence artificielle, a fait grimper les prix des nouvelles puces HBM4 de 20 &#224; 30 % par rapport &#224; la g&#233;n&#233;ration pr&#233;c&#233;dente. Ce qui l&#8217;est moins, c&#8217;est la vitesse du retournement. En 2024, Samsung n&#8217;avait vers&#233; <strong>aucune</strong> prime de performance &#224; sa division puces, alors en pertes apr&#232;s la r&#233;cession du march&#233; m&#233;moire de 2023. Deux ans plus tard, la m&#234;me division discute d&#8217;une prime repr&#233;sentant jusqu&#8217;&#224; 15 % de son r&#233;sultat d&#8217;exploitation. Ce n&#8217;est pas une progression : c&#8217;est un effacement complet du cycle pr&#233;c&#233;dent, en l&#8217;espace de vingt-quatre mois.</p><h2>SK Hynix supprime son plafond, Samsung n&#233;gocie sous tension</h2><p>Les deux g&#233;ants cor&#233;ens de la m&#233;moire ont emprunt&#233; des chemins oppos&#233;s. SK Hynix a supprim&#233;, d&#232;s septembre 2025, le plafond de ses primes li&#233;es aux b&#233;n&#233;fices, s&#8217;engageant &#224; reverser 10 % de son r&#233;sultat d&#8217;exploitation annuel &#8212; d&#8217;o&#249; les 477 000 dollars projet&#233;s par salari&#233; cette ann&#233;e.</p><p>Chez Samsung, le chemin a &#233;t&#233; plus &#226;pre. Le syndicat r&#233;clamait 15 % du r&#233;sultat d&#8217;exploitation de la division semi-conducteurs ; la direction proposait 10 %, une offre rejet&#233;e en avril, avec un rassemblement &#224; l&#8217;usine de Pyeongtaek et une demande d&#8217;injonction de l&#8217;entreprise contre le mouvement. L&#8217;accord finalement sign&#233; le 20 mai, &#224; quelques heures d&#8217;une gr&#232;ve g&#233;n&#233;rale de dix-huit jours, a fix&#233; la prime &#224; 10,5 % du r&#233;sultat d&#8217;exploitation de la division, sans plafond, pay&#233;e en actions bloqu&#233;es un &#224; deux ans &#8212; avec un objectif de r&#233;sultat d&#8217;exploitation de 200 000 milliards de wons [=116 milliards d'euros] pour 2026-2028, qui redescend &#224; 100 000 milliards &#224; partir de 2029. Cette baisse programm&#233;e du seuil n&#8217;est pas un d&#233;tail : elle signale que l&#8217;entreprise elle-m&#234;me n&#8217;anticipe pas que le supercycle actuel dure ind&#233;finiment.</p><h2>Investir, redistribuer aux actionnaires, ou payer les salari&#233;s</h2><p>Ces b&#233;n&#233;fices ne vont pas qu&#8217;aux salari&#233;s. Samsung et SK Hynix ont annonc&#233; un investissement conjoint d&#8217;environ 800 000 milliards de wons (=464 milliards d&#8217;euros) avec leurs fournisseurs, pour construire deux nouveaux complexes de fabrication &#8212; la part la plus lourde, et la moins discut&#233;e publiquement, de la r&#233;partition des b&#233;n&#233;fices.</p><p>La part actionnariale, elle, est devenue un terrain de contentieux inattendu. Le Korea Shareholder Action Headquarters, un groupe de d&#233;fense des actionnaires minoritaires, a menac&#233; d&#8217;attaquer en justice l&#8217;accord salarial de Samsung, jugeant que r&#233;server une part fixe du r&#233;sultat d&#8217;exploitation aux salari&#233;s s&#8217;apparente &#224; un dividende d&#233;guis&#233;, vers&#233; sans l&#8217;approbation des actionnaires normalement requise par le droit des soci&#233;t&#233;s cor&#233;en. Autrement dit : la question de savoir si cette manne doit d&#8217;abord profiter aux actionnaires ou aux salari&#233;s n&#8217;est plus seulement un d&#233;bat de politique &#233;conomique &#8212; c&#8217;est devenu, en Cor&#233;e, un contentieux de droit des soci&#233;t&#233;s en cours.</p><h2>Quand la prime d&#8217;un salari&#233; devient une variable de politique mon&#233;taire</h2><p>Le 17 juin, la Banque de Cor&#233;e a explicitement signal&#233; ces primes chez Samsung et SK Hynix comme un risque pour la stabilit&#233; des prix : les r&#233;mun&#233;rations variables du secteur informatique ont bondi de 60,6 % sur un an au premier trimestre, contre 2,1 % pour le reste de l&#8217;&#233;conomie &#8212; un &#233;cart jug&#233; assez large pour entrer dans les arbitrages de la banque centrale, qui a maintenu son taux &#224; 2,50 % en mai tout en relevant sa pr&#233;vision d&#8217;inflation &#224; 2,7 % pour l&#8217;ann&#233;e, au-dessus de sa cible de 2 %. Ce n&#8217;est donc plus une question de relations sociales internes &#224; deux entreprises : c&#8217;est devenu une variable macro&#233;conomique nationale.</p><h2>Hyundai Electronics, avant de devenir SK Hynix</h2><p>Un dernier fait referme la boucle avec le reste de ce dossier. SK Hynix a &#233;t&#233; fond&#233;e en 1983 sous le nom Hyundai Electronics, division du groupe Hyundai &#8212; le m&#234;me groupe dont nous avons suivi, dans nos deux premiers articles, la bataille sociale autour des robots Atlas. Apr&#232;s la crise asiatique de 1997, l&#8217;entreprise a absorb&#233; LG Semiconductor, a &#233;t&#233; scind&#233;e du groupe Hyundai en 2003, puis rachet&#233;e par SK en 2012.</p><p>Le 11 juillet &#8212; hier, au moment o&#249; ces lignes sont &#233;crites &#8212;, SK Hynix a lev&#233; 26,5 milliards de dollars [=23,7milliards d&#8217;euros] en s&#8217;introduisant au Nasdaq sous forme de certificats repr&#233;sentatifs d&#8217;actions (ADR) : la plus importante lev&#233;e de fonds jamais r&#233;alis&#233;e par une entreprise &#233;trang&#232;re sur le sol usam&#233;ricain. Le titre a bondi d&#8217;environ 13 % d&#232;s sa premi&#232;re s&#233;ance, avec un pic &#224; +19 % en intrajournali&#232;re, port&#233; par l&#8217;app&#233;tit des investisseurs pour tout ce qui touche &#224; l&#8217;IA. C&#8217;est la troisi&#232;me introduction en bourse de l&#8217;histoire par son montant, derri&#232;re Saudi Aramco (29,4 milliards de dollars en 2019) mais devant Alibaba (environ 25 milliards en 2014) &#8212; et elle survient seulement quelques semaines apr&#232;s l&#8217;entr&#233;e en bourse record de SpaceX, en juin. Les actions SK Hynix cot&#233;es &#224; S&#233;oul, de leur c&#244;t&#233;, ont plus que septupl&#233; sur l&#8217;ann&#233;e &#233;coul&#233;e, et l&#8217;entreprise a d&#233;tr&#244;n&#233; Samsung comme la soci&#233;t&#233; la plus valoris&#233;e du pays d&#232;s le mois de juin. Chey Tae-won, le pr&#233;sident du groupe SK &#8212; celui-l&#224; m&#234;me dont l&#8217;article suivant de ce dossier rappelle la condamnation pour d&#233;tournement de fonds &#8212; a indiqu&#233; &#224; Bloomberg Television que le groupe resterait ouvert &#224; de nouvelles &#233;missions d&#8217;actions usam&#233;ricaines si les rendements se maintenaient. Un signe suppl&#233;mentaire que l&#8217;entreprise n&#233;e chez Hyundai est devenue, quatre d&#233;cennies plus tard, l&#8217;un des fournisseurs les plus strat&#233;giques de l&#8217;infrastructure mondiale de l&#8217;IA &#8212; et l&#8217;un des chouchous les plus recherch&#233;s de Wall Street.</p><h2>Ce que cette m&#233;canique ne r&#233;sout pas</h2><p>Reste une question que ni les chiffres de primes, ni l&#8217;arbitrage judiciaire actionnarial, ni la vigilance de la Banque de Cor&#233;e ne permettent de trancher : cette manne, concentr&#233;e dans deux entreprises et un seul secteur, doit-elle rester une affaire strictement priv&#233;e entre chaque entreprise et ses parties prenantes &#8212; salari&#233;s, actionnaires, fournisseurs &#8212; ou appelle-t-elle un arbitrage &#224; l&#8217;&#233;chelle du pays tout entier ? C&#8217;est la question que pose, plus frontalement encore, le d&#233;bat politique cor&#233;en sur un &#171; dividende national &#187; &#8212; que nous traitons dans notre article suivant.</p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><h2>Annexe &#8212; Une prime de 500 000 dollars par salari&#233;, est-ce un record mondial ?</h2><p>Le comparateur le plus proche que nous ayons pu documenter avec des chiffres pr&#233;cis est Wall Street, au sommet du cycle 2006-2009. Chez Goldman Sachs, la r&#233;mun&#233;ration totale moyenne par salari&#233; (salaire de base et bonus confondus, sur un effectif d&#8217;environ 29 400 &#224; 30 000 personnes &#8212; un ordre de grandeur comparable aux quelque 35 000 salari&#233;s de SK Hynix) a atteint 622 000 dollars en 2006, puis 662 000 dollars en 2007, avant que des estimations n&#8217;&#233;voquent jusqu&#8217;&#224; 609 000-688 000 dollars par t&#234;te pour 2009. En magnitude brute, on retrouve donc d&#233;j&#224;, il y a pr&#232;s de vingt ans, un ordre de grandeur comparable.</p><p>Deux r&#233;serves emp&#234;chent cependant de parler d&#8217;&#233;quivalence stricte. D&#8217;abord, le chiffre Goldman Sachs mesure une r&#233;mun&#233;ration <em>totale</em> (salaire plus bonus), sur une hi&#233;rarchie tr&#232;s in&#233;galitaire o&#249; quelques associ&#233;s et traders tirent fortement la moyenne vers le haut &#8212; rien ne garantit que le salari&#233; &#171; moyen &#187; ait r&#233;ellement touch&#233; ce montant. Les primes cor&#233;ennes, elles, s&#8217;ajoutent &#224; un salaire de base, sur des structures salariales bien plus resserr&#233;es &#8212; ce qui sugg&#232;re une distribution plus large et plus homog&#232;ne du montant.</p><p>Ensuite, une comparaison intuitive ne tient pas &#224; la v&#233;rification : les compagnies p&#233;troli&#232;res du Golfe pendant leurs propres booms. Les donn&#233;es de compensation disponibles pour Saudi Aramco montrent des primes de performance de l&#8217;ordre de 30 000 &#224; 40 000 riyals saoudiens en moyenne, soit environ 8 000 &#224; 11 000 dollars &#8212; sans commune mesure avec les chiffres cor&#233;ens, malgr&#233; des avantages par ailleurs g&#233;n&#233;reux (logement, &#233;ducation, prime du Ramadan).</p><p>Le constat le plus solide : le niveau des primes cor&#233;ennes n&#8217;a rien d&#8217;un record absolu si l&#8217;on compare &#224; la finance de march&#233; au sommet de son cycle. Ce qui semble en revanche sans pr&#233;c&#233;dent v&#233;rifiable, c&#8217;est de le voir appara&#238;tre dans un secteur manufacturier &#8212; une usine de semi-conducteurs, pas une salle de march&#233; &#8212;, aupr&#232;s d&#8217;un effectif de production, et non d&#8217;une &#233;lite de traders.</p><p><em>&#201;cart&#233; faute de donn&#233;es v&#233;rifiables : Qatar Petroleum, ADNOC, et les autres compagnies p&#233;troli&#232;res nationales du Golfe, pour lesquelles nous n&#8217;avons trouv&#233; aucun chiffre de compensation comparable et exploitable.</em></p></div><div><hr></div><p><em>Sources : The Korea Times, The Korea Herald, Bloomberg, CNBC, Reuters (via Korea Herald), TradingKey, Tom&#8217;s Hardware, Fortune, Seoul Economic Daily.</em></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Toutes nos publications sont gratuites et en Copyleft. Elles peuvent &#234;tre republi&#233;es, int&#233;gralement ou partiellement, aux conditions suivantes :<br>&#8594; respect de l&#8217;intitul&#233; et du contenu<br>(texte, images, notes d&#8217;&#233;diteur ou de traducteur, encadr&#233;s)<br>&#8594;</strong> <strong>indication du ou des auteurs et/ou traducteurs<br>&#8594; lien cliquable vers la source.<br>Toute mon&#233;tisation ou utilisation commerciale de ces publications est exclue et fera l&#8217;objet de poursuites.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Korea 2/4] Metaplant, Yesterday’s Showcase: How Hyundai Lost Control over Its Own Trajectory]]></title><description><![CDATA[At Hyundai, two robotics strategies that Le Monde conflates]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/korea-24-metaplant-yesterdays-showcase</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/korea-24-metaplant-yesterdays-showcase</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 13 Jul 2026 05:01:42 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g83u!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206720140">English</a> - <a href="https://faustotounsi.substack.com/publish/post/206720904">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206709499">Fran&#231;ais</a></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g83u!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g83u!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g83u!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g83u!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g83u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g83u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png" width="1448" height="1086" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1086,&quot;width&quot;:1448,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2339793,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Twilight view of a vast American car factory with glass fa&#231;ades. Workers and robots operate inside brightly lit production areas, while part of the glass reflects a dark, digital and almost fully automated industrial world. A large incomplete gold ring crosses the fa&#231;ade, and an American flag flies on the right.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/206720140?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Twilight view of a vast American car factory with glass fa&#231;ades. Workers and robots operate inside brightly lit production areas, while part of the glass reflects a dark, digital and almost fully automated industrial world. A large incomplete gold ring crosses the fa&#231;ade, and an American flag flies on the right." title="Twilight view of a vast American car factory with glass fa&#231;ades. Workers and robots operate inside brightly lit production areas, while part of the glass reflects a dark, digital and almost fully automated industrial world. A large incomplete gold ring crosses the fa&#231;ade, and an American flag flies on the right." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g83u!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g83u!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g83u!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g83u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F139b8c43-aba3-4a24-a830-1fb54f801465_1448x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Metaplant still showcases Hyundai&#8217;s technological achievement, while its reflection reveals an industrial trajectory increasingly shaped by forces beyond its control.</figcaption></figure></div><p>On July 10, 2026, <em>Le Monde</em> ran <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2026/07/10/bienvenue-a-metaplant-l-usine-ultra-automatisee-hyundai-a-ellabell-en-georgie-ou-les-salaries-cotoient-des-robots_6722348_3234.html">a feature on Metaplant</a>, the giant plant Hyundai opened in Ellabell, Georgia. The piece lingers on Spot, the robot dog inspecting car bodies, on the &#8220;almost clinical&#8221; cleanliness of the place, on the 300,000 vehicles that roll out of it each year. The dominant picture is one of success: a company that has turned its American plant into the showcase of its lead in robotics, &#8220;including humanoid robotics.&#8221;</p><p>That picture isn&#8217;t false. It&#8217;s dated. What <em>Le Monde</em> describes as <em>the</em> Hyundai robotics strategy is, in reality, only one layer &#8212; the oldest one, already overtaken by a second, decided in an entirely different context and for very different reasons. We have documented elsewhere <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/korea-14-from-wolfsburg-to-ulsan">the social battle that accompanies this shift</a>, in Korea as in the United States; here, the goal is to understand its industrial logic, and what it says, more broadly, about the place Hyundai now occupies in the BYD-ization of the global auto industry.</p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p><strong>BYD-ization</strong> &#8212; A concept formalized and tested across <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/the-byd-ization">an earlier series of articles</a>. It describes the phenomenon by which Chinese companies (BYD, Huawei, CATL, DeepSeek) do not merely compete with established players, but redefine the very norms of competitiveness in their sectors. The concept rests on eight interdependent mechanisms: vertical integration, the pincer effect, accelerated cycles, standardized diffusion, technological substitution, the domestic market as a springboard, public coordination, and the offer of complete systems.</p></div><h2>2020: A Korean Innovation, Not a Response to China</h2><p>The technological foundation found at Metaplant &#8212; cell-based production rather than a single line, a digital twin, cooperation between collaborative robots and human operators &#8212; was not designed for Georgia. It comes from the Hyundai Motor Group Innovation Center Singapore (HMGICS), whose early work with NTU University on AI and additive manufacturing dates back to 2020, ahead of an official opening in late 2023. The same setup was later transferred to the electric-vehicle plant in Ulsan, Korea, and then, to the extent of 60% according to Hyundai itself, to the American Metaplant.</p><p>This chronology matters. In 2020, the shift of Chinese auto plants toward sites designed from the outset around batteries, software, and AI-redesigned flows had not yet taken the dazzling shape it has assumed since 2024. Singapore&#8217;s bet was therefore not a response to China. It was a choice of its own, presented by Hyundai as &#8220;human-centered,&#8221; in which automation &#8212; 200 robots handling roughly half of all tasks &#8212; aimed to be a partner to the operator, not a replacement. What is being celebrated today in Ellabell is, for the most part, the Georgia culmination of this first layer: a South Korean engineering strategy conceived before Chinese competition imposed its own tempo.</p><h2>2026: Hyundai Catches Up, Belatedly, With the Chinese Model</h2><p>A very different announcement followed, much more recently. In January 2026, Hyundai confirmed it wanted to deploy Atlas, the humanoid robot made by its Boston Dynamics subsidiary, in its factories. In May, the scale of the project was spelled out: more than 25,000 units eventually across the group&#8217;s sites, on a timeline that calls for parts sequencing by robots starting in 2028, then full vehicle assembly starting in 2030 &#8212; with the stated goal of a factory running with no staff, 24 hours a day, seven days a week, even with the lights off. This time, it is the exact definition of the lights-out factory that China has already implemented in electronics and, more recently, in the auto industry.</p><p>The contrast with the first layer is stark. Where HMGICS claimed a human-robot partnership as its own identity, the 2030 horizon aims at erasing the human operator from the assembly line &#8212; a goal that nothing in the 2020-2023 vocabulary announced. The timing of this announcement is not neutral: it comes as Hyundai&#8217;s operating profit declines under the combined effect of U.S. tariffs and increasingly intense Chinese competition. Since 1967, the group had built a reputation as a systems integrator capable of setting its own industrial pace &#8212; the 2020 strategy still belonged to that register. No official Hyundai statement acknowledges drawing inspiration from the Chinese model: the company presents Atlas as the natural continuation of its own robotics trajectory, not as a copy of the lights-out factory. This, then, is a reading we are proposing, not an admission from the company &#8212; but it rests on a body of evidence that is hard to ignore: the coincidence in timing with China&#8217;s 2024-2026 acceleration, a factory goal of running &#8220;even with the lights off&#8221; that existed in no Hyundai vocabulary before this announcement, and the context of Chinese competitive pressure that the company itself documents in its own financial communications. With that caveat, everything suggests that the 2025-2026 strategy has changed in nature: it no longer belongs to the autonomous innovation claimed in 2020, but to a forced catch-up with an industrial model China has already proven.</p><p>The markets themselves seem to have started settling this question, without putting it in these terms. Hyundai&#8217;s stock had hit a record high in early June, buoyed by enthusiasm over Atlas and physical AI. It has since given back most of those gains: on July 8, a Korean brokerage cut its price target, citing a 10.8% drop in domestic sales in the first half and an expected drop of more than 20% in second-quarter operating profit. More telling still, the share of capital held by foreign investors fell from more than 35% in January to below 25% today &#8212; a level of capital flight one Kiwoom Securities analyst called &#8220;historically unusual.&#8221; In other words: the stock-market premium granted early in the year to Hyundai&#8217;s robotics strategy evaporates as soon as the results of the core auto business disappoint &#8212; a sign that investors themselves are drawing a line, without naming it as such, between the technological showcase and the solidity of the underlying industrial trajectory. On July 5, in the middle of this stock-market turmoil, Hyundai paraded Atlas on the field at East Rutherford stadium during the football World Cup: the showcase, for its part, keeps running at full speed.</p><h2>Under the Hood, China Is Already Everywhere &#8212; Except for Export</h2><p>The same movement is playing out on a second front, less visible but just as decisive: the content of the car itself, rather than how it&#8217;s built. At the Beijing Auto Show in April 2026, Hyundai unveiled the IONIQ V, an electric vehicle designed for the Chinese market, powered by autonomous-driving software from startup Momenta and CATL batteries good for 600 km of range, running ByteDance&#8217;s Doubao large language model and Baidu and Gaode maps.</p><p>This is not an exception: it has become the industry norm in 2026. Volkswagen presented a sedan co-developed with Xpeng in Beijing, with plans to launch up to 50 such vehicles by 2030; BMW and Mercedes are both working with Momenta; Toyota, through its GAC Toyota joint venture, confirmed a model equipped with Huawei&#8217;s HarmonyOS cockpit; General Motors, through Cadillac, co-developed its driver-assistance system with Momenta for the Chinese market. Nearly every major Western, Japanese, and Korean automaker now relies on Chinese building blocks &#8212; with Momenta emerging, for almost all of them, as the pivotal supplier.</p><p>The real nuance, then, is not about the adoption of these technologies, but about their geographic destination. Renault goes further than Hyundai: the models co-developed with Geely on the GEA platform are explicitly assembled outside China &#8212; in Brazil and South Korea. Volkswagen has already taken a symbolic step: its SAIC joint-venture sedan, running Momenta and CATL, will be exported to Germany &#8212; the Chinese technology stack literally coming home to the automaker that helped birth it in China. Hyundai, by contrast, currently presents the IONIQ V as a product designed for China alone, with availability elsewhere &#8220;to be evaluated later,&#8221; according to the company &#8212; except that CATL&#8217;s vice president has, for his part, explicitly proposed equipping Hyundai models &#8220;across various segments and regions,&#8221; and Hyundai CEO Jos&#233; Mu&#241;oz has himself framed the ambition in three stages: &#8220;in China, for China, and eventually, for the world.&#8221;</p><h2>In the U.S., a Circle to Square; in Europe, a Three-Sided Squeeze</h2><p>This dual shift &#8212; manufacturing and technological &#8212; runs, on each continent, into a different wall, one that no decision made in Seoul can lift on its own.</p><p>In the United States, the contradiction is structural and goes beyond Hyundai: the promise of reindustrialization carried by the Trump administration&#8217;s tariffs collides with the reality that jobs &#8220;brought back&#8221; are increasingly filled by robots rather than by American workers &#8212; to the point that trade adviser Peter Navarro and Elon Musk have publicly clashed over the issue, each accusing the other of being nothing more than &#8220;a car assembler.&#8221; The raid conducted by immigration authorities at Metaplant in September 2025 &#8212; which we documented elsewhere from its human angle &#8212; is the concrete symptom of this contradiction: an automated factory still needs, in the near term, expertise that the American workforce cannot supply on its own, without the legal visa framework having anticipated this exact case.</p><p>In Europe, Hyundai (No&#353;ovice, Czech Republic) and Kia (&#381;ilina, Slovakia) run stable plants, with incremental rather than radical automation &#8212; nothing that resembles, as of today, a lights-out factory on European soil. But the market in which they operate is tightening for everyone: pure Chinese brands (SAIC, BYD, Geely, Chery, Leapmotor) pushed their combined share to around 12% of the European market in the first half of 2026, while Volkswagen, Stellantis, and Renault &#8212; themselves engaged in Chinese partnerships &#8212; are announcing tens of thousands of job cuts. Hyundai and Kia thus find themselves squeezed between direct Chinese competition, historic European rivals turned partly Chinese from within, and &#8212; should CATL&#8217;s ambition be confirmed &#8212; their own Chinese strategy, which could one day compete against them on their own European turf.</p><h2>April 27, May 3: The Collision Has Already Happened</h2><p>Two dates are enough to show just how little this collision is waiting for 2030. On April 27, 2026, CATL&#8217;s vice president announced his wish to equip Hyundai vehicles &#8220;across various regions.&#8221; One week later, on May 3, Kia&#8217;s union formulated its demand for mandatory domestic production of batteries and motors &#8212; precisely the lock that would prevent this Chinese ambition from extending onto Korean soil. The balance of power, then, is not a scenario to anticipate four years from now: it is already the substance of negotiations under way, before a single Atlas robot has ever set foot on a line.</p><p>Read in this light, Le Monde&#8217;s report does not lie about any fact it reports. But by presenting Metaplant as the finished embodiment of &#8220;leadership in robotics, including humanoid robotics,&#8221; it merges two strategic moments that everything sets apart: a Korean innovation that predates the Chinese race, and what we have proposed reading, above, as a later, less original copy of that same race. The reader is left with the image of a company in full command of its own trajectory. The exact chronology &#8212; HMGICS in 2020, Atlas in 2026, the IONIQ V designed for China but already coveted for export, a Korean union negotiating in real time against this very prospect &#8212; suggests instead a company managing, market by market, a series of constraints set elsewhere: in Beijing, in Washington, in Brussels, and, increasingly rarely, in Seoul.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Main sources: Le Monde (July 10, 2026); Hyundai Motor Group / HMGICS statements and press releases (2020-2026); Automotive Manufacturing Solutions; Seoul Economic Daily; The Korea Times (including its July 8, 2026 edition); UPI; CNBC; TIME; ABC News; the &#8220;BYD-ization&#8221; series (francoisvadrot.substack.com).</em></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>All our publications are free and Copyleft. They may be republished, in whole or in part, under following conditions:</strong><br><strong>&#8594; keeping the title and content</strong><br><strong>(text, images, editor&#8217;s or translator&#8217;s notes, boxes)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; crediting the author(s) and/or translator(s)</strong><br><strong>&#8594; inserting a clickable link to the source.</strong><br><strong>Any monetization or commercial use of these publications is prohibited and will be subject to legal action.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[[Corée 2/4] Metaplant, la vitrine d’hier : comment Hyundai a perdu la main sur sa propre trajectoire]]></title><description><![CDATA[Chez Hyundai, deux strat&#233;gies robotiques que Le Monde confond]]></description><link>https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-24-metaplant-la-vitrine-dhier</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-24-metaplant-la-vitrine-dhier</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[François Vadrot]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 13 Jul 2026 05:01:41 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ua-S!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206720140">English</a> - <a href="https://faustotounsi.substack.com/publish/post/206720904">Espa&#241;ol</a> - <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/publish/post/206709499">Fran&#231;ais</a></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong><span data-color="#cc0000" style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">Dossier Cor&#233;e du Sud</span></strong></p><ol><li><p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-14-de-wolfsburg-a-ulsan-qui">De Wolfsburg &#224; Ulsan : qui a encore le pouvoir de dire non ?</a></p></li><li><p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-24-metaplant-la-vitrine-dhier">Metaplant, la vitrine d&#8217;hier : comment Hyundai a perdu la main sur sa propre trajectoire</a></p></li><li><p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-34-de-pyeongtaek-a-icheon-a">De Pyeongtaek &#224; Icheon : &#224; qui profite la manne de l&#8217;IA ?</a></p></li><li><p><a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/coree-44-letat-a-bati-les-chaebols">L&#8217;&#201;tat a b&#226;ti les chaebols : peut-il aujourd&#8217;hui r&#233;clamer sa part de l&#8217;IA ?</a></p></li></ol></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ua-S!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ua-S!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ua-S!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ua-S!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ua-S!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ua-S!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png" width="1448" height="1086" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1086,&quot;width&quot;:1448,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2339793,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Vue cr&#233;pusculaire d'une immense usine automobile am&#233;ricaine aux fa&#231;ades vitr&#233;es. Des ouvriers et des robots travaillent dans les espaces lumineux, tandis qu'une partie de la vitre refl&#232;te un univers industriel num&#233;rique, sombre et presque enti&#232;rement automatis&#233;. Un grand anneau d'or incomplet traverse la fa&#231;ade et un drapeau am&#233;ricain flotte &#224; droite.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/i/206709499?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Vue cr&#233;pusculaire d'une immense usine automobile am&#233;ricaine aux fa&#231;ades vitr&#233;es. Des ouvriers et des robots travaillent dans les espaces lumineux, tandis qu'une partie de la vitre refl&#232;te un univers industriel num&#233;rique, sombre et presque enti&#232;rement automatis&#233;. Un grand anneau d'or incomplet traverse la fa&#231;ade et un drapeau am&#233;ricain flotte &#224; droite." title="Vue cr&#233;pusculaire d'une immense usine automobile am&#233;ricaine aux fa&#231;ades vitr&#233;es. Des ouvriers et des robots travaillent dans les espaces lumineux, tandis qu'une partie de la vitre refl&#232;te un univers industriel num&#233;rique, sombre et presque enti&#232;rement automatis&#233;. Un grand anneau d'or incomplet traverse la fa&#231;ade et un drapeau am&#233;ricain flotte &#224; droite." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ua-S!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ua-S!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ua-S!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ua-S!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5623e559-8088-4507-910c-4a334c514c99_1448x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Metaplant expose encore la r&#233;ussite technologique de Hyundai, tandis que son reflet r&#233;v&#232;le une trajectoire industrielle d&#233;sormais soumise &#224; des contraintes venues d&#8217;ailleurs.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Le 10 juillet 2026, <em>Le Monde</em> consacre <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2026/07/10/bienvenue-a-metaplant-l-usine-ultra-automatisee-hyundai-a-ellabell-en-georgie-ou-les-salaries-cotoient-des-robots_6722348_3234.html">un reportage &#224; Metaplant</a>, l&#8217;usine g&#233;ante que Hyundai a inaugur&#233;e &#224; Ellabell, en G&#233;orgie (USA). Le texte s&#8217;attarde sur le chien-robot Spot qui inspecte les carrosseries, sur la propret&#233; &#171; quasi clinique &#187; des lieux, sur les 300 000 v&#233;hicules qui en sortent chaque ann&#233;e. Le tableau qui domine est celui d&#8217;une r&#233;ussite : une entreprise qui a fait de son usine usam&#233;ricaine la vitrine de son avance dans la robotique, &#171; notamment humano&#239;de &#187;.</p><p>Ce tableau n&#8217;est pas faux. Il est dat&#233;. Ce que <em>Le Monde</em> d&#233;crit comme <em>la</em> strat&#233;gie robotique de Hyundai n&#8217;en est, en r&#233;alit&#233;, qu&#8217;une strate &#8212; la plus ancienne, d&#233;j&#224; d&#233;pass&#233;e par une seconde, d&#233;cid&#233;e dans un tout autre contexte et pour des raisons tr&#232;s diff&#233;rentes. Nous avons document&#233; par ailleurs <a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/francoisvadrot/p/coree-14-de-wolfsburg-a-ulsan-qui">la bataille sociale qui accompagne cette bascule</a>, en Cor&#233;e comme aux USA ; il s&#8217;agit ici de comprendre sa logique industrielle, et ce qu&#8217;elle dit, plus largement, de la place que Hyundai occupe d&#233;sormais dans la BYD-isation du monde automobile.</p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p><strong>BYD-isation</strong> &#8212; Concept formalis&#233; et exp&#233;riment&#233; dans <a href="https://francoisvadrot.substack.com/p/la-byd-isation">une s&#233;rie d&#8217;articles ant&#233;rieurs</a>. Il d&#233;signe le ph&#233;nom&#232;ne par lequel des entreprises chinoises (BYD, Huawei, CATL, DeepSeek) ne se contentent pas de concurrencer les acteurs &#233;tablis, mais red&#233;finissent les normes de comp&#233;titivit&#233; dans leurs secteurs. Le concept repose sur huit m&#233;canismes interd&#233;pendants : int&#233;gration verticale, effet de ciseau, acc&#233;l&#233;ration des cycles, diffusion standardis&#233;e, substitution technologique, march&#233; int&#233;rieur comme tremplin, coordination publique, offre de syst&#232;mes complets.</p></div><h2>2020 : une innovation cor&#233;enne, pas une r&#233;ponse &#224; la Chine</h2><p>Le socle technologique que l&#8217;on retrouve &#224; Metaplant &#8212; production en cellules plut&#244;t qu&#8217;&#224; la cha&#238;ne, jumeau num&#233;rique, coop&#233;ration entre robots collaboratifs et op&#233;rateurs humains &#8212; n&#8217;a pas &#233;t&#233; con&#231;u pour la G&#233;orgie. Il provient du Hyundai Motor Group Innovation Center Singapore (HMGICS), dont les premiers travaux, men&#233;s avec l&#8217;universit&#233; NTU sur l&#8217;IA et la fabrication additive, remontent &#224; 2020, pour une ouverture officielle fin 2023. Le m&#234;me dispositif a ensuite &#233;t&#233; transf&#233;r&#233; &#224; l&#8217;usine &#233;lectrique d&#8217;Ulsan, en Cor&#233;e, puis, &#224; hauteur de 60 % selon Hyundai lui-m&#234;me, au Metaplant usam&#233;ricain.</p><p>Cette chronologie compte. En 2020, la bascule des usines automobiles chinoises vers des sites con&#231;us d&#232;s l&#8217;origine autour de la batterie, du logiciel et de flux enti&#232;rement repens&#233;s par l&#8217;IA n&#8217;avait pas encore pris la forme fulgurante qu&#8217;elle a prise depuis 2024. Le pari de Singapour n&#8217;&#233;tait donc pas une r&#233;ponse &#224; la Chine. C&#8217;&#233;tait un choix propre, pr&#233;sent&#233; par Hyundai comme &#171; centr&#233; sur l&#8217;humain &#187;, o&#249; l&#8217;automatisation &#8212; 200 robots prenant en charge environ la moiti&#233; des t&#226;ches &#8212; se voulait un partenaire de l&#8217;op&#233;rateur, non son rempla&#231;ant. Ce qui se c&#233;l&#232;bre aujourd&#8217;hui &#224; Ellabell est, pour l&#8217;essentiel, l&#8217;aboutissement g&#233;orgien de cette premi&#232;re strate : une strat&#233;gie d&#8217;ing&#233;nierie sud-cor&#233;enne pens&#233;e avant que la concurrence chinoise n&#8217;impose son tempo.</p><h2>2026 : Hyundai imite, avec retard, le mod&#232;le chinois</h2><p>Une tout autre annonce a suivi, beaucoup plus r&#233;cente. En janvier 2026, Hyundai confirme vouloir d&#233;ployer Atlas, le robot humano&#239;de de sa filiale Boston Dynamics, dans ses usines. En mai, l&#8217;ampleur du projet est pr&#233;cis&#233;e : plus de 25 000 unit&#233;s &#224; terme sur l&#8217;ensemble des sites du groupe, avec un calendrier qui pr&#233;voit le s&#233;quen&#231;age des pi&#232;ces par les robots &#224; partir de 2028, puis l&#8217;assemblage complet des v&#233;hicules &#224; partir de 2030 &#8212; dans l&#8217;objectif assum&#233; d&#8217;une usine fonctionnant sans personnel, 24 heures sur 24, sept jours sur sept, m&#234;me les lumi&#232;res &#233;teintes. C&#8217;est, cette fois, la d&#233;finition exacte de l&#8217;usine noire que la Chine a d&#233;j&#224; mise en &#339;uvre dans l&#8217;&#233;lectronique puis, plus r&#233;cemment, dans l&#8217;automobile.</p><p>Le contraste avec la premi&#232;re strate est frontal. L&#224; o&#249; HMGICS revendiquait un partenariat homme-robot comme identit&#233; propre, l&#8217;horizon 2030 vise l&#8217;effacement de l&#8217;op&#233;rateur humain de la cha&#238;ne d&#8217;assemblage &#8212; un objectif que rien, dans le vocabulaire de 2020-2023, n&#8217;annon&#231;ait. Le moment de cette annonce n&#8217;est pas neutre : elle intervient alors que le r&#233;sultat op&#233;rationnel de Hyundai recule sous l&#8217;effet conjugu&#233; des droits de douane usam&#233;ricains et d&#8217;une concurrence chinoise de plus en plus pressante. Depuis 1967, le groupe s&#8217;&#233;tait construit une r&#233;putation d&#8217;ensemblier capable d&#8217;imposer son propre tempo industriel &#8212; la strat&#233;gie de 2020 relevait encore de ce registre. Aucune d&#233;claration officielle de Hyundai ne reconna&#238;t s&#8217;inspirer du mod&#232;le chinois : l&#8217;entreprise pr&#233;sente Atlas comme le prolongement naturel de sa trajectoire robotique, pas comme une r&#233;plique de l&#8217;usine noire. C&#8217;est donc une lecture que nous faisons, pas un aveu de l&#8217;entreprise &#8212; mais elle s&#8217;appuie sur un faisceau d&#8217;indices difficile &#224; ignorer : la concordance de calendrier avec l&#8217;acc&#233;l&#233;ration chinoise de 2024-2026, un objectif d&#8217;usine &#171; m&#234;me les lumi&#232;res &#233;teintes &#187; qui n&#8217;existait dans aucun vocabulaire Hyundai avant cette annonce, et le contexte de pression concurrentielle chinoise que l&#8217;entreprise documente elle-m&#234;me dans ses communications financi&#232;res. Sous cette r&#233;serve, tout indique que la strat&#233;gie de 2025-2026 a chang&#233; de nature : elle ne rel&#232;ve plus de l&#8217;innovation autonome revendiqu&#233;e en 2020, mais d&#8217;un rattrapage, sous contrainte, d&#8217;un mod&#232;le industriel que la Chine a d&#233;j&#224; &#233;prouv&#233;.</p><p>Les march&#233;s eux-m&#234;mes semblent avoir commenc&#233; &#224; trancher cette question, sans le formuler en ces termes. L&#8217;action Hyundai avait atteint un sommet historique d&#233;but juin, port&#233;e par l&#8217;enthousiasme entourant Atlas et la robotique physique. Elle en a depuis rendu l&#8217;essentiel : le 8 juillet, une maison de courtage cor&#233;enne abaissait son objectif de cours, invoquant une baisse de 10,8 % des ventes domestiques au premier semestre et une chute attendue de plus de 20 % du r&#233;sultat d&#8217;exploitation au deuxi&#232;me trimestre. Plus r&#233;v&#233;lateur encore, la part du capital d&#233;tenue par des investisseurs &#233;trangers est pass&#233;e de plus de 35 % en janvier &#224; moins de 25 % aujourd&#8217;hui &#8212; un niveau de sortie de capitaux qu&#8217;un analyste de Kiwoom Securities a qualifi&#233; d&#8217;&#171; historiquement inhabituel &#187;. Autrement dit : la prime boursi&#232;re accord&#233;e en d&#233;but d&#8217;ann&#233;e &#224; la strat&#233;gie robotique de Hyundai s&#8217;efface d&#232;s que les r&#233;sultats du c&#339;ur de m&#233;tier automobile d&#233;&#231;oivent &#8212; un signe que les investisseurs eux-m&#234;mes distinguent, sans le nommer ainsi, la vitrine technologique de la solidit&#233; de la trajectoire industrielle sous-jacente. Le 5 juillet, en pleine tourmente boursi&#232;re, Hyundai faisait d&#233;filer Atlas sur la pelouse du stade d&#8217;East Rutherford pendant la Coupe du monde de football : la vitrine, elle, continue de fonctionner &#224; plein r&#233;gime.</p><h2>Sous le capot, une Chine d&#233;j&#224; g&#233;n&#233;ralis&#233;e &#8212; sauf &#224; l&#8217;export</h2><p>Un m&#234;me mouvement se joue sur un second front, moins visible mais tout aussi d&#233;cisif : celui du contenu de la voiture, plut&#244;t que de sa fabrication. Au Salon de P&#233;kin, en avril 2026, Hyundai a d&#233;voil&#233; l&#8217;IONIQ V, une &#233;lectrique con&#231;ue pour le march&#233; chinois, aliment&#233;e par un logiciel de conduite autonome de la startup Momenta et des batteries CATL pour 600 km d&#8217;autonomie, embarquant le grand mod&#232;le de langage Doubao de ByteDance et les cartes Baidu et Gaode.</p><p>Ce n&#8217;est pas une exception : c&#8217;est devenu la norme du secteur en 2026. Volkswagen a pr&#233;sent&#233; &#224; P&#233;kin une berline co-d&#233;velopp&#233;e avec Xpeng, avec l&#8217;ambition d&#8217;en lancer jusqu&#8217;&#224; 50 d&#8217;ici 2030 ; BMW et Mercedes travaillent tous deux avec Momenta ; Toyota, via sa coentreprise GAC Toyota, a confirm&#233; un mod&#232;le dot&#233; du cockpit HarmonyOS de Huawei ; General Motors a co-d&#233;velopp&#233;, via Cadillac, son syst&#232;me de conduite assist&#233;e avec Momenta pour le march&#233; chinois. Presque tous les grands constructeurs occidentaux, japonais et cor&#233;ens s&#8217;appuient d&#233;sormais sur des briques chinoises &#8212; Momenta revenant, chez presque tous, comme fournisseur pivot.</p><p>La vraie nuance ne porte donc pas sur l&#8217;adoption de ces technologies, mais sur leur destination g&#233;ographique. Renault va plus loin que Hyundai : les mod&#232;les co-d&#233;velopp&#233;s avec Geely sur la plateforme GEA sont explicitement assembl&#233;s hors de Chine &#8212; au Br&#233;sil et en Cor&#233;e du Sud. Volkswagen a d&#233;j&#224; franchi un pas symbolique : sa berline coentreprise avec SAIC, embarquant Momenta et CATL, sera export&#233;e en Allemagne &#8212; le stock technologique chinois revenant ainsi, litt&#233;ralement, chez le constructeur qui l&#8217;a fait na&#238;tre en Chine. Hyundai, &#224; l&#8217;inverse, pr&#233;sente pour l&#8217;instant l&#8217;IONIQ V comme un produit pens&#233; pour la Chine seule, sa disponibilit&#233; ailleurs devant &#234;tre &#171; &#233;valu&#233;e plus tard &#187; selon l&#8217;entreprise &#8212; sauf que le vice-pr&#233;sident de CATL a, de son c&#244;t&#233;, explicitement propos&#233; d&#8217;&#233;quiper les mod&#232;les Hyundai &#171; &#224; travers diff&#233;rents segments et diff&#233;rentes r&#233;gions &#187;, et que le PDG Hyundai Jos&#233; Mu&#241;oz a lui-m&#234;me formul&#233; l&#8217;ambition en trois temps : &#171; en Chine, pour la Chine, et &#224; terme, pour le monde &#187;.</p><h2>Aux USA la quadrature du cercle, en Europe l&#8217;&#233;tau &#224; trois flancs</h2><p>Cette double bascule &#8212; manufacturi&#232;re et technologique &#8212; se heurte, sur chaque continent, &#224; un mur diff&#233;rent, qu&#8217;aucune d&#233;cision prise &#224; S&#233;oul ne peut lever seule.</p><p>Aux USA, la contradiction est structurelle et d&#233;passe Hyundai : la promesse de r&#233;industrialisation port&#233;e par les droits de douane de l&#8217;administration Trump se heurte &#224; la r&#233;alit&#233; que les emplois &#171; ramen&#233;s &#187; sont, de plus en plus, occup&#233;s par des robots plut&#244;t que par des ouvriers am&#233;ricains &#8212; au point que le conseiller commercial Peter Navarro et Elon Musk se soient publiquement &#233;charp&#233;s sur ce point, l&#8217;un accusant l&#8217;autre de n&#8217;&#234;tre qu&#8217;&#171; un assembleur de voitures &#187;. Le raid men&#233; par les services de l&#8217;immigration &#224; Metaplant en septembre 2025 &#8212; que nous avons document&#233; par ailleurs sous son angle humain &#8212; est le sympt&#244;me concret de cette contradiction : une usine automatis&#233;e a quand m&#234;me besoin, dans l&#8217;imm&#233;diat, d&#8217;une expertise que la main-d&#8217;&#339;uvre usam&#233;ricaine ne peut fournir seule, sans que le cadre l&#233;gal des visas ait pr&#233;vu cette figure.</p><p>En Europe, Hyundai (No&#353;ovice, R&#233;publique tch&#232;que) et Kia (&#381;ilina, Slovaquie) exploitent des usines stables, &#224; l&#8217;automatisation incr&#233;mentale plut&#244;t que radicale &#8212; rien qui ressemble, &#224; ce jour, &#224; une usine noire sur le sol europ&#233;en. Mais le march&#233; dans lequel elles op&#232;rent se resserre pour tout le monde : les marques chinoises pures (SAIC, BYD, Geely, Chery, Leapmotor) ont port&#233; leur part cumul&#233;e &#224; environ 12 % du march&#233; europ&#233;en au premier semestre 2026, pendant que Volkswagen, Stellantis et Renault, eux-m&#234;mes engag&#233;s dans des partenariats chinois, annoncent des dizaines de milliers de suppressions d&#8217;emplois. Hyundai et Kia se retrouvent ainsi pris en &#233;tau entre la concurrence chinoise directe, des rivaux europ&#233;ens historiques chinois&#233;s de l&#8217;int&#233;rieur, et &#8212; si l&#8217;ambition de CATL se confirme &#8212; leur propre strat&#233;gie chinoise, qui pourrait un jour les concurrencer eux-m&#234;mes sur leur propre segment europ&#233;en.</p><h2>27 avril, 3 mai : la collision a d&#233;j&#224; eu lieu</h2><p>Deux dates suffisent &#224; mesurer &#224; quel point cette collision n&#8217;attend pas 2030. Le 27 avril 2026, le vice-pr&#233;sident de CATL annonce vouloir &#233;quiper les Hyundai &#171; &#224; travers diff&#233;rentes r&#233;gions &#187;. Une semaine plus tard, le 3 mai, le syndicat de Kia formule sa revendication de production domestique obligatoire des batteries et moteurs &#8212; pr&#233;cis&#233;ment le verrou qui emp&#234;cherait cette ambition chinoise de s&#8217;&#233;tendre au sol cor&#233;en. Le rapport de force n&#8217;est donc pas un sc&#233;nario &#224; anticiper d&#8217;ici quatre ans : il est d&#233;j&#224; la mati&#232;re des n&#233;gociations en cours, avant m&#234;me qu&#8217;un seul robot Atlas n&#8217;ait mis le pied sur une cha&#238;ne.</p><p>Relu &#224; cette lumi&#232;re, le reportage du <em>Monde</em> ne ment sur aucun fait qu&#8217;il rapporte. Mais en pr&#233;sentant Metaplant comme l&#8217;incarnation achev&#233;e du &#171; leadership dans le domaine de la robotique, notamment humano&#239;de &#187;, il fusionne deux moments strat&#233;giques que tout distingue : une innovation cor&#233;enne ant&#233;rieure &#224; la course chinoise, et ce que nous avons propos&#233; de lire, plus haut, comme une r&#233;plique tardive et moins originale de cette m&#234;me course. Le lecteur en retient l&#8217;image d&#8217;une entreprise ma&#238;tresse de sa trajectoire. La chronologie exacte &#8212; HMGICS en 2020, Atlas en 2026, IONIQ V pens&#233;e pour la Chine mais d&#233;j&#224; convoit&#233;e pour l&#8217;export, un syndicat cor&#233;en qui n&#233;gocie en temps r&#233;el contre cette perspective &#8212; sugg&#232;re plut&#244;t une entreprise en train de g&#233;rer, march&#233; par march&#233;, une s&#233;rie de contraintes fix&#233;es ailleurs : &#224; P&#233;kin, &#224; Washington, &#224; Bruxelles, et de plus en plus rarement &#224; S&#233;oul.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Sources principales : Le Monde (10 juillet 2026) ; communiqu&#233;s et d&#233;clarations Hyundai Motor Group / HMGICS (2020-2026) ; Automotive Manufacturing Solutions ; Seoul Economic Daily ; Korea Times (dont l&#8217;&#233;dition du 8 juillet 2026) ; UPI ; CNBC ; TIME ; ABC News ; dossier &#171; BYD-isation &#187; (francoisvadrot.substack.com).</em></p><div class="callout-block" data-callout="true"><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Toutes nos publications sont gratuites et en Copyleft. Elles peuvent &#234;tre republi&#233;es, int&#233;gralement ou partiellement, aux conditions suivantes :<br>&#8594; respect de l&#8217;intitul&#233; et du contenu<br>(texte, images, notes d&#8217;&#233;diteur ou de traducteur, encadr&#233;s)<br>&#8594;</strong> <strong>indication du ou des auteurs et/ou traducteurs<br>&#8594; lien cliquable vers la source.<br>Toute mon&#233;tisation ou utilisation commerciale de ces publications est exclue et fera l&#8217;objet de poursuites.</strong></p></div>]]></content:encoded></item></channel></rss>